Drivers and Consequences of Land Degradation on Livestock Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

Land degradation is a major threat to sub-Saharan Africa rangelands, which are crucial for livestock farming and the livelihood of millions of people in the region. This systematic review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the causes and effects of land degradation, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of different mitigation strategies. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we identified, screened, and analyzed 25 peer-reviewed articles published before 30 June 2024 using Scopus. The review highlights key factors that drive land degradation, such as soil erosion, drought, deforestation, and climate change, as well as socio-economic factors like poverty, land tenure issues, population pressure, and economic instability. These factors have serious implications, as land degradation can lead to poor quality of forage, an increased incidence of diseases, higher mortality rates among livestock, and a significant decline in livestock productivity. The socio-economic consequences of this degradation are significant, leading to reduced household income, increased poverty, and heightened food insecurity. Furthermore, the review assesses various mitigation strategies and concludes that practices such as rotational grazing and soil conservation techniques demonstrate high effectiveness, while agroforestry practices show only moderate success. An integrated approach that combines environmental, economic, and policy measures is crucial to addressing the complex challenge of land degradation in sub-Saharan Africa. Strengthening land tenure, improving economic stability, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices are essential steps toward improving the health of rangelands, increasing livestock productivity, and supporting the resilience and well-being of rural communities.

1. Introduction

Land degradation is a significant environmental challenge that has a profound impact on the livelihood of millions of people worldwide [1,2], particularly in sub-Saharan Africa [3]. This region is known for its extensive rangelands [4], which heavily rely on livestock farming as a crucial part of their agricultural economy and sustenance [5]. However, the escalating issue of land degradation poses a critical threat to the productivity, resilience, and sustainability of these rangelands, which are driven by a combination of biophysical and socio-economic factors [6,7]. Rangelands in sub-Saharan Africa are essential ecosystems that provide vital resources for livestock, such as forage, water, and habitat [8,9]. Additionally, they support a diverse array of wildlife and contribute to the ecological balance of the region [10,11]. Despite their significance, these landscapes are increasingly subjected to degradation due to factors such as overgrazing, soil erosion, deforestation, climate change, and unsustainable land management practices [9,12]. The degradation of rangelands not only diminishes their capacity to support livestock but also exacerbates poverty and food insecurity among pastoral and agro-pastoral communities [13,14].

The relationship between land degradation and livestock productivity is complex and multifaceted. Degraded lands result in poor forage quality and reduced water availability, directly affecting the health, growth, and reproductive performance of livestock [5,15]. These environmental stressors increase vulnerability to diseases and higher mortality rates among livestock, thereby undermining the livelihood of rural communities that depend on these animals [16,17]. As a consequence, a decline in livestock productivity has cascading effects on rural livelihoods, food security, and economic stability, often pushing communities into deeper cycles of poverty and vulnerability [13,18] (Munthali et al., 2019; Bekele et al., 2014). In response to these challenges, various mitigation and adaptation strategies have been implemented across the region [19]. Techniques such as rotational grazing, agroforestry, and soil conservation practices have shown potential in restoring degraded lands and enhancing rangeland resilience [20,21]. However, the effectiveness of these interventions is often influenced by socio-economic conditions, policy frameworks, and the extent of community participation, highlighting the need for integrated and context-specific approaches to rangeland management [22,23].

Given the complexities and broad implications of land degradation on livestock productivity, understanding the full scope of this issue requires a comprehensive examination of the existing research. While conducting a detailed study of the socioeconomic, environmental, climatic, and demographic characteristics of specific areas could provide valuable insights, it may also present limitations. Such an approach is often constrained by the specificities of the study area, making it difficult to generalize findings across the diverse rangelands of sub-Saharan Africa. In contrast, a systematic review of the existing literature allows for a broader, more inclusive analysis that can incorporate findings from various contexts, methodologies, and temporal scales. By synthesizing research from multiple studies, a systematic review offers a more robust understanding of the drivers and consequences of land degradation across the region. This approach also enables the identification of patterns, gaps in knowledge, and effective mitigation strategies that may not be apparent in isolated case studies. Moreover, systematic reviews are valuable in assessing the effectiveness of interventions across different contexts, thereby providing evidence-based recommendations that can be adapted to various socio-economic and environmental conditions.

In this context, our decision to conduct a systematic review rather than a localized study allows us to draw on a wider range of data and experiences, offering a more comprehensive understanding of how land degradation affects livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. This approach is particularly advantageous in informing policy and guiding future research and interventions aimed at mitigating the impacts of land degradation on livestock-dependent communities. This systematic review aims to synthesize the existing body of knowledge on the drivers and consequences of land degradation on livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, it seeks to address the following research questions:

I.

What are the primary biophysical and socio-economic drivers of land degradation in rangelands?

II.

How does land degradation affect livestock health, productivity, and mortality rates?

III.

What are the cascading effects of reduced livestock productivity on rural livelihoods and food security?

IV.

What interventions have been implemented to mitigate these effects, and how effective have they been?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

This systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. To demonstrate the study selection process, a PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) has been included. Furthermore, a completed PRISMA checklist was used to ensure a comprehensive and transparent review process. Although the review was not registered in a public database like PROSPERO, we made every effort to maintain the highest standards of systematic review methodology. The adoption of the PRISMA framework enhances the transparency, accuracy, and replicability of the research process, which has been supported by previous studies [24,25]. The review consisted of two main stages: the systematic searching and selection of relevant literature, and the careful management, coding, and analysis of the data extracted from the selected studies. This structured methodology ensured a thorough review and provides a basis for future research to replicate and expand upon the findings.

2.2. Pertinence and State of the Matter Studied

Before conducting the systematic review, we performed a preliminary search on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The purpose was to identify studies that matched the Population, Exposure, and Outcomes (PEO) components of the research questions, following the methodology described by Bettany-Saltikov [26]. This initial step was crucial for establishing the pertinence of the subject matter and for understanding the current state of research in this area. We established eligibility criteria to ensure the inclusion of highly relevant studies. Specifically, the review focused on studies that investigated rangelands and livestock systems in sub-Saharan Africa. This population is crucial for understanding the impact of land degradation in regions where livestock are vital for local economies and food security. The exposure criteria targeted key drivers of land degradation such as soil erosion, drought, overgrazing, poverty, and land tenure issues. Furthermore, the studies selected for review were required to report on outcomes related to the consequences of land degradation for livestock productivity, including effects on grazing capacity, livestock health, and the livelihood of communities dependent on rangeland ecosystems. This careful selection process ensured that the review was both focused and relevant, excluding studies that did not meet these criteria, such as those focusing solely on crop agriculture or those set outside the sub-Saharan African context. This approach not only enhances the relevance of the review but also provides a clearer understanding of the current state of knowledge regarding the drivers and impacts of land degradation in sub-Saharan rangelands.

2.3. Literature Search

The literature search for this systematic review was conducted using Scopus, a comprehensive multidisciplinary database, to identify studies focused on the drivers and consequences of land degradation on livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. We developed a search strategy using the Population, Exposure, and Outcomes (PEO) framework. Key search terms included “Sub-Saharan Africa”, “rangelands”, “livestock systems”, “land degradation”, “soil erosion”, “overgrazing”, “drought”, “land use change”, “livestock productivity”, “grazing capacity”, and “livestock health”. We combined these terms using Boolean operators to ensure comprehensive coverage of the topic. To refine the search, we applied filters to include only peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, book chapters, and review papers published in English, focusing on subject areas related to Environmental Science, Agricultural and Biological Sciences, and the Social Sciences. We also limited the search to articles published up to 30 June 2024 to include the most recent research. The search process involved exporting the results to a Mendeley reference management software (v1.19.8) for screening. We first reviewed titles and abstracts against predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies that did not meet the criteria were excluded, and we assessed the full texts of the remaining articles for relevance. Our review focused on studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa that specifically addressed the impact of land degradation on livestock productivity. We then extracted and assessed data from the included studies for quality, ensuring that the final selection of literature was robust and relevant to the research question.

2.4. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

As presented in Table 1, we carefully defined the inclusion and exclusion criteria for selecting review articles to ensure the relevance and quality of the studies analyzed. We included only publications in English to increase readability and to align with the researchers’ language proficiency. Geographically, the review focused exclusively on papers related to Sub-Saharan Africa, excluding studies from other regions to maintain the scope of the systematic review. Articles had to be fully accessible through the University of Fort Hare library subscription, which posed some limitations. While access restrictions did limit our ability to include some potentially relevant studies, we acknowledge that many references are available through other universities’ online catalogs. Even abstracts and keywords from these sources can provide valuable insights. In future research, we recommend consulting a broader range of global sources to enhance the typology of topics covered. For this review, we focused on articles published before 30 June 2024 to ensure that our analysis reflected the most current research on the drivers and consequences of land degradation affecting livestock productivity. The research was limited to papers that addressed both drivers and the consequences of land degradation within the context of livestock. Studies solely focused on agricultural crops without addressing livestock were excluded. We included only peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, book chapters, and review papers, and excluded gray literature, such as reports and theses, unless they provided substantial empirical data to ensure the study’s validity and robustness.

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the review articles in the order of selection.

Criteria	Included	Excluded	Justification for Criteria Application
Language publication	English	All other languages	To increase readability and due to the researchers’ proficiency in the English language
Country or location of study	Sub-Saharan Africa-related papers	Non-sub-Saharan African papers	To remain within the scope of the systematic review
Article availability	Fully available paper using University of Fort Hare’s library subscription	Full paper not accessible	Access- related issues
Date of publication	Any article published before 30 June 2024	-	Used available papers from selected databases to have a contemporary perspective on drivers and the consequences of land degradation on livestock productivity
Research focus	Papers that included “drivers and consequences of land degradation in livestock” in general	Research focusing solely on agricultural crops without addressing livestock	To remain within the focused scope of the systematic review
Type of article	Peer-reviewed research journal articles, conference papers, book chapters, review papers	Gray literature, including reports and theses, unless they provided substantial empirical data	To increase the validity of the study findings

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the review articles in the order of selection.

Criteria	Included	Excluded	Justification for Criteria Application
Language publication	English	All other languages	To increase readability and due to the researchers’ proficiency in the English language
Country or location of study	Sub-Saharan Africa-related papers	Non-sub-Saharan African papers	To remain within the scope of the systematic review
Article availability	Fully available paper using University of Fort Hare’s library subscription	Full paper not accessible	Access- related issues
Date of publication	Any article published before 30 June 2024	-	Used available papers from selected databases to have a contemporary perspective on drivers and the consequences of land degradation on livestock productivity
Research focus	Papers that included “drivers and consequences of land degradation in livestock” in general	Research focusing solely on agricultural crops without addressing livestock	To remain within the focused scope of the systematic review
Type of article	Peer-reviewed research journal articles, conference papers, book chapters, review papers	Gray literature, including reports and theses, unless they provided substantial empirical data	To increase the validity of the study findings

2.5. Data Extraction and Synthesis

Two independent reviewers, Mhlangabezi Slayi and Zolisanani Mpanyaro, conducted the data extraction for this systematic review to ensure accuracy and to minimize bias. Any discrepancies between the reviewers were resolved through discussion and consensus. We assessed the reliability of data extraction among the reviewers, except for authorship and publication year, and achieved 87% agreement. The key information extracted from each study included the author(s) and year of publication, study location and setting, research objectives and questions, and the methodological approach (e.g., field studies, surveys, and modeling). Additionally, we collected data on the main findings related to the drivers of land degradation, its impacts on livestock, socio-economic consequences, and the interventions and mitigation strategies discussed in each study. We synthesized the extracted data using a narrative approach, complemented by tabular summaries and visual representations such as word clouds and co-occurrence networks. These tools facilitated a comprehensive analysis of thematic patterns and relationships among the key terms and concepts, enabling a deeper understanding of the complex interactions between land degradation and livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. This approach ensured a structured and nuanced synthesis of the literature, highlighting critical insights and identifying gaps for future research.

2.6. Data Analysis

The data analysis utilized a thematic approach to identify recurring themes and patterns in the selected studies. This method allowed for a systematic examination of the primary drivers of land degradation, their impact on livestock productivity, and the effectiveness of different mitigation strategies. The Bibliometrix R package Version: 4.3.0 (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017; R Core Team, 2021) [27] was employed to conduct a bibliometric analysis. Bibliometrix is widely recognized for its comprehensive tools that facilitate a deep understanding of scientific domains through the examination of co-citation networks, thematic evolution, and collaboration patterns [28]. By enabling the visualization of intellectual structures within a field, Bibliometrix provides valuable insights into the evolution of research trends and the connections between different knowledge areas [29]. To ensure the relevance and accuracy of search terms in the databases, a word cloud was generated, highlighting the 74 most frequently cited words in the abstracts (frequency threshold > 30%). Furthermore, a co-occurrence network and link analysis were created to explore the relationships between knowledge areas based on the words from the abstracts [24]. In this analysis, the size of the label and circle representing a term was determined by its weight, which is the frequency of its usage in the articles [30]. The links between terms indicate relationships between knowledge areas, with closer terms reflecting stronger connections.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Primary Drivers of Land Degradation in Sub-Saharan Rangelands

Table 2 presents a systematic review of the main causes of land degradation in sub-Saharan rangelands. The review reveals a complex interaction of biophysical and socio-economic factors across different regions, each with its own unique challenges and contexts. The studies included in the review cover a wide geographic range, including Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. This wide distribution emphasizes the diverse environmental and socio-economic conditions that contribute to degradation. The reviewed studies employ various methodologies, such as field surveys, remote sensing, geospatial data analysis, and dynamic vegetation modeling. Field surveys and participatory rural appraisals, conducted by researchers like Ringrose et al. [11] and Sibanda et al. [2], provide detailed insights into local perspectives and capture the traditional knowledge of affected communities. These qualitative methods are crucial for understanding the socio-cultural aspects of land degradation and for designing culturally sensitive interventions. On the other hand, remote sensing and statistical analysis, as utilized by Wessels et al. [11] and Tesfaye et al. [3], provide quantitative data on vegetation changes and land degradation on large spatial and temporal scales. These data are essential for identifying general trends and patterns. The key findings of the review indicate that both biophysical factors, such as soil erosion, overgrazing, bush encroachment, and rainfall variability, as well as socio-economic factors, including poverty, land tenure issues, and market access, contribute significantly to land degradation. For example, in Botswana, drought is identified by local communities as the primary cause of resource depletion, which is further exacerbated by poverty and inadequate land tenure systems [10]. Overgrazing greatly contributes to the degradation of rangelands, causing a decrease in vegetation cover, increased soil erosion, and reduced land productivity. These factors negatively impact livestock yields and worsen food insecurity among pastoralist communities [23,31]. Soil erosion is especially severe in areas with poor vegetation cover and steep slopes. However, certain soil conservation practices like terracing and reforestation show promise in mitigating these effects [32].

Climate change further worsens rangeland degradation with rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns. This leads to decreased forage availability and higher livestock mortality rates. To address this, adaptive strategies such as diversified livestock management and improved water conservation are necessary [31,33]. Deforestation for agricultural expansion and fuelwood collection also contributes to soil erosion and fertility loss, further exacerbating land degradation [34]. Secure land tenure promotes better land management practices and improved rangeland conditions, while insecure land tenure discourages sustainable land management, leading to overgrazing and soil erosion [35]. Communities facing economic instability often overexploit rangeland resources for immediate survival, causing severe degradation. Diversifying income sources and implementing community-based natural resource management are necessary to address this issue [36]. Increasing population pressure also leads to overgrazing and the conversion of rangelands for agricultural use, resulting in significant soil erosion and loss of vegetation [37]. However, there are significant research gaps in understanding the long-term impacts of soil conservation practices, optimizing climate adaptation strategies, and comprehending the complex socio-economic factors influencing rangeland management. Further investigation into community engagement, technological innovations, and policy implementation is essential to developing effective interventions for sustainable rangeland management.

Table 2. Summary of primary drivers of land degradation in sub-Saharan rangelands.

Reference	Location	Biophysical Drivers	Socio-Economic Drivers	Methodology	Key Findings
[10]	Botswana	Soil erosion, overgrazing, drought	Poverty, land tenure issues	Field survey, remote sensing	Local people identified drought as the main cause of increasing resource depletion, which impedes vegetation regeneration and induces land degradation. The situation is exacerbated by widespread poverty and inappropriate perceptions of solutions.
[38]	Ethiopia	Bush encroachment, drought, water scarcity	Ban on traditional practices, increasing practice of crop cultivation on the rangelands	Survey	All respondents reported a dramatic decline in rangeland conditions, attributing it to past development policies based on equilibrium theories that opposed communal and traditional range management. Issues such as bush encroachment, bans on traditional burning practices, recurrent droughts, and the increasing practice of crop cultivation on rangelands were identified as serious threats to livestock production and traditional resource management.
[11]	South Africa	Heavy grazing	-	Remote sensing, statistical analysis	Rainfall and degradation accounted for 38% and 20% of the AVHRR ZNDVI variance and 50% and 33% of the MODIS ZNDVI variance, respectively, indicating that degradation significantly influences long-term vegetation productivity. This challenges the nonequilibrium model, which predicts a negligible long-term grazing impact.
[4]	South Africa	Land-use/land-cover change (LULCC), declining livestock, cultivation, renewable energy installations	-	Analysis of large data sets, repeat photographs	More than 95% of the Karoo has remained classified as natural and stable since 1990, with significant declines in cultivation and livestock over the last century. Vegetation productivity trends have remained unchanged over 90% of the biomes, with notable increases in nearly 10%, necessitating continuous monitoring to assess future LULCC impacts.
[3]	Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi	Soil texture, surface slope, rainfall	Market access, human and livestock population densities	High-resolution geospatial data analysis	Conservation agriculture (CA) aims to reduce soil degradation, conserve water, and enhance crop productivity. The study identified potential recommendation domains (RDs) for CA, with 39%, 12%, and 5% of cultivated areas in Malawi, Kenya, and Ethiopia, respectively, showing high potential, highlighting significant areas for CA adoption that are influenced by biophysical and socio-economic conditions.
[8]	Ethiopia	Rainfall variability, land degradation, low soil fertility	Market access, human and livestock population densities	Field survey, IDSS tools (SWAT, APEX)	Rainfed agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa faces constraints from rainfall variability, land degradation, and low soil fertility. Small-scale irrigation in Ethiopia’s Robit and Dangishta watersheds shows potential for dry-season vegetable production, but groundwater recharge is insufficient; mulching and soil conservation can optimize irrigation by reducing soil evaporation.
[5]	South Africa	Vegetation change	Expansion of human settlements	Survey	The study examined local people’s perceptions of rangeland resources in three communal grasslands, finding that locals view vegetation changes primarily in terms of species richness, diversity, and abundance, unlike ecologists who link them to degradation. Abiotic, biotic, and institutional factors were identified as primary drivers, while human settlement expansion poses a threat by reducing and fragmenting grazing resources.
[1]	Namibia	Shrub encroachment, overgrazing	High livestock densities	Dynamic vegetation modeling	High livestock densities lead to shrub encroachment and severe decreases in fodder biomass, causing up to 100% losses in land productivity. Wildlife-based land use with a 40% browser to 60% grazer ratio is beneficial for plant structural and species diversity, enhancing ecosystem sustainability and resilience.
[7]	South Africa	Decades of overstocking with small livestock, historical ploughing for fodder, climate change	Reduced land-use options, vulnerability to environmental and economic stressors, costs of restoration	Local-scale participatory restoration trial, assessment of regional-scale restoration costs	Ecological restoration is difficult and expensive; climate change exacerbates challenges; holistic land management actions needed to sustain livelihoods
[9]	South Africa	Assumptions of overstocking and degradation, ecological models from large-scale commercial farming	Assumptions that increasing livestock sales and commercial farming improve productivity, belief that communal tenure causes degradation and that privatization is the solution	Examination of current policy, review of ecological and economic assumptions, analysis of the effectiveness of existing models	Current policies based on large-scale commercial farming models are inappropriate for rangeland commons; effective policy should support multiple livelihoods, strengthen common property management, and use diverse ecological and economic models for different contexts
[2]	Zimbabwe	Changes in rangeland use and productivity, cropland conversion affecting feed resources	Local knowledge of rangeland resources, role of new institutions for cropland use, changes in common property management	Participatory rural appraisals, household surveys	User communities categorize rangelands by feed resources and changes over time, view rangelands as diverse and dynamic; croplands have become dual-purpose for food security and livestock feed; new institutions govern cropland use while those for common rangelands have weakened, presenting ecological challenges but also opportunities for innovative feed resource management
[6]	Namibia	Overgrazing and climate change	Lack of grazing lands and feed followed by water scarcity and recurring droughts	Household surveys, focus group discussions	Respondents in all villages indicated that lack of grazing lands and feed followed by water scarcity and recurring droughts were the primary and secondary constraints of livestock production. Older respondents regarded overgrazing and climate change as the primary cause of rangeland degradation. Hence, the study concludes that communal rangelands are degraded and that degradation has resulted in gradual livestock population declining trends over the past years in communal areas due to feed shortages.
[12]	Kenya	Soil nutrient decline, land degradation, low nutrient levels (decline of 1.7 kg P and 5.4 kg K ha−1 half year−1), low phosphorus and potassium stocks	Rising population, poverty (all households below the poverty line of 1 USD/day), low farm economic returns, low livestock productivity, and low yields of staple food crops	Soil nutrient monitoring, household surveys	Soil nutrient decline rates are low compared with macro-scale data, but low farm productivity and economic returns threaten sustainability; intercropping systems (maize–beans) improve the nutrient balance and household incomes; the study highlights the need to encourage intercropping and to consider localized sustainability strategies

Table 2. Summary of primary drivers of land degradation in sub-Saharan rangelands.

Reference	Location	Biophysical Drivers	Socio-Economic Drivers	Methodology	Key Findings
[10]	Botswana	Soil erosion, overgrazing, drought	Poverty, land tenure issues	Field survey, remote sensing	Local people identified drought as the main cause of increasing resource depletion, which impedes vegetation regeneration and induces land degradation. The situation is exacerbated by widespread poverty and inappropriate perceptions of solutions.
[38]	Ethiopia	Bush encroachment, drought, water scarcity	Ban on traditional practices, increasing practice of crop cultivation on the rangelands	Survey	All respondents reported a dramatic decline in rangeland conditions, attributing it to past development policies based on equilibrium theories that opposed communal and traditional range management. Issues such as bush encroachment, bans on traditional burning practices, recurrent droughts, and the increasing practice of crop cultivation on rangelands were identified as serious threats to livestock production and traditional resource management.
[11]	South Africa	Heavy grazing	-	Remote sensing, statistical analysis	Rainfall and degradation accounted for 38% and 20% of the AVHRR ZNDVI variance and 50% and 33% of the MODIS ZNDVI variance, respectively, indicating that degradation significantly influences long-term vegetation productivity. This challenges the nonequilibrium model, which predicts a negligible long-term grazing impact.
[4]	South Africa	Land-use/land-cover change (LULCC), declining livestock, cultivation, renewable energy installations	-	Analysis of large data sets, repeat photographs	More than 95% of the Karoo has remained classified as natural and stable since 1990, with significant declines in cultivation and livestock over the last century. Vegetation productivity trends have remained unchanged over 90% of the biomes, with notable increases in nearly 10%, necessitating continuous monitoring to assess future LULCC impacts.
[3]	Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi	Soil texture, surface slope, rainfall	Market access, human and livestock population densities	High-resolution geospatial data analysis	Conservation agriculture (CA) aims to reduce soil degradation, conserve water, and enhance crop productivity. The study identified potential recommendation domains (RDs) for CA, with 39%, 12%, and 5% of cultivated areas in Malawi, Kenya, and Ethiopia, respectively, showing high potential, highlighting significant areas for CA adoption that are influenced by biophysical and socio-economic conditions.
[8]	Ethiopia	Rainfall variability, land degradation, low soil fertility	Market access, human and livestock population densities	Field survey, IDSS tools (SWAT, APEX)	Rainfed agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa faces constraints from rainfall variability, land degradation, and low soil fertility. Small-scale irrigation in Ethiopia’s Robit and Dangishta watersheds shows potential for dry-season vegetable production, but groundwater recharge is insufficient; mulching and soil conservation can optimize irrigation by reducing soil evaporation.
[5]	South Africa	Vegetation change	Expansion of human settlements	Survey	The study examined local people’s perceptions of rangeland resources in three communal grasslands, finding that locals view vegetation changes primarily in terms of species richness, diversity, and abundance, unlike ecologists who link them to degradation. Abiotic, biotic, and institutional factors were identified as primary drivers, while human settlement expansion poses a threat by reducing and fragmenting grazing resources.
[1]	Namibia	Shrub encroachment, overgrazing	High livestock densities	Dynamic vegetation modeling	High livestock densities lead to shrub encroachment and severe decreases in fodder biomass, causing up to 100% losses in land productivity. Wildlife-based land use with a 40% browser to 60% grazer ratio is beneficial for plant structural and species diversity, enhancing ecosystem sustainability and resilience.
[7]	South Africa	Decades of overstocking with small livestock, historical ploughing for fodder, climate change	Reduced land-use options, vulnerability to environmental and economic stressors, costs of restoration	Local-scale participatory restoration trial, assessment of regional-scale restoration costs	Ecological restoration is difficult and expensive; climate change exacerbates challenges; holistic land management actions needed to sustain livelihoods
[9]	South Africa	Assumptions of overstocking and degradation, ecological models from large-scale commercial farming	Assumptions that increasing livestock sales and commercial farming improve productivity, belief that communal tenure causes degradation and that privatization is the solution	Examination of current policy, review of ecological and economic assumptions, analysis of the effectiveness of existing models	Current policies based on large-scale commercial farming models are inappropriate for rangeland commons; effective policy should support multiple livelihoods, strengthen common property management, and use diverse ecological and economic models for different contexts
[2]	Zimbabwe	Changes in rangeland use and productivity, cropland conversion affecting feed resources	Local knowledge of rangeland resources, role of new institutions for cropland use, changes in common property management	Participatory rural appraisals, household surveys	User communities categorize rangelands by feed resources and changes over time, view rangelands as diverse and dynamic; croplands have become dual-purpose for food security and livestock feed; new institutions govern cropland use while those for common rangelands have weakened, presenting ecological challenges but also opportunities for innovative feed resource management
[6]	Namibia	Overgrazing and climate change	Lack of grazing lands and feed followed by water scarcity and recurring droughts	Household surveys, focus group discussions	Respondents in all villages indicated that lack of grazing lands and feed followed by water scarcity and recurring droughts were the primary and secondary constraints of livestock production. Older respondents regarded overgrazing and climate change as the primary cause of rangeland degradation. Hence, the study concludes that communal rangelands are degraded and that degradation has resulted in gradual livestock population declining trends over the past years in communal areas due to feed shortages.
[12]	Kenya	Soil nutrient decline, land degradation, low nutrient levels (decline of 1.7 kg P and 5.4 kg K ha−1 half year−1), low phosphorus and potassium stocks	Rising population, poverty (all households below the poverty line of 1 USD/day), low farm economic returns, low livestock productivity, and low yields of staple food crops	Soil nutrient monitoring, household surveys	Soil nutrient decline rates are low compared with macro-scale data, but low farm productivity and economic returns threaten sustainability; intercropping systems (maize–beans) improve the nutrient balance and household incomes; the study highlights the need to encourage intercropping and to consider localized sustainability strategies

Similarly, in Ethiopia, restrictive policies on traditional practices and the expansion of crop cultivation into rangelands exacerbate degradation [38]. These examples highlight the need for context-specific management strategies that address both environmental and socio-economic dimensions. Additionally, the review emphasizes the effectiveness of integrated management approaches. Conservation agriculture (CA) and participatory management practices are identified as promising strategies for mitigating soil degradation and for improving agricultural productivity [32]. However, challenges still remain, particularly in ensuring sustainable implementation and long-term monitoring. Studies like those conducted by Bourne et al. [7] and Vetter [9] emphasize the importance of holistic land management that incorporates traditional knowledge, modern scientific practices, and adaptive strategies to combat the multifaceted issues of land degradation and climate change. Gaps in the research are clear, particularly in the need for more longitudinal studies that integrate socio-economic and biophysical data to provide a comprehensive understanding of land degradation dynamics. Future research should focus on these areas, along with the development of policies that support local livelihoods, strengthen institutional capacities, and promote sustainable agricultural practices tailored to specific regional contexts. Such efforts are essential for building resilience and ensuring the sustainability of rangelands in sub-Saharan Africa.

3.2. Impact of Land Degradation on Livestock Health, Productivity, and Mortality

The results from the studies summarized in Table 3 highlight the severe and multifaceted impacts of land degradation on livestock health, productivity, and mortality across different regions of sub-Saharan Africa. In South Africa, Bennet et al. [14] demonstrated a direct correlation between land degradation and increased disease incidence among livestock, which leads to reduced milk and meat yields and higher calf mortality rates. This indicates that environmental degradation not only undermines animal health but also directly impacts the economic output of livestock farming. Similarly, in Namibia, Ward et al. [17] showed that degraded rangelands result in poor forage quality, which in turn leads to malnutrition, decreased weight gain, and increased mortality among adult livestock. These findings emphasize the critical role of adequate forage in maintaining livestock health and productivity, underscoring the vulnerability of these animals to changing environmental conditions. In Botswana, Abel [39] found that land degradation contributes to higher parasite loads and lower reproductive rates, which significantly increases the mortality of young livestock. This highlights the complex interplay between environmental stressors and animal health, where degraded habitats foster conditions that facilitate the spread of parasites and diseases, further compounding the challenges faced by pastoral communities. The study by Mganga et al. [40] in Kenya provided additional evidence of the adverse effects of land degradation, noting that dust and poor vegetation exacerbated respiratory and digestive issues in livestock, leading to a decline in wool and milk production and higher lamb mortality rates. This finding illustrates the broad spectrum of health challenges posed by degraded environments, which can manifest in various forms from respiratory ailments to nutritional deficiencies. In Ethiopia, Bekele et al. [19] observed that malnutrition and weakened immunity due to land degradation resulted in lower overall herd productivity and a spike in drought-related deaths. This underscores the compounded risk that degraded lands pose, especially in the context of climate variability and extreme weather events, which are becoming more frequent in the region.

Table 3. Impact of land degradation on livestock health, productivity, and mortality.

References	Study Areas	Health Impacts	Productivity Impacts	Mortality Rates	Methodology	Key Findings
[14]	South Africa	Increased disease incidence	Reduced milk and meat yield	Higher calf mortality	Field experiments, veterinary records	Increased land degradation correlates with higher disease incidence and reduced productivity, leading to higher mortality.
[17]	Namibia	Poor nutritional status	Decreased weight gain	Increased adult livestock deaths	Longitudinal study, surveys	Poor forage quality from degraded lands leads to poor nutrition, weight loss, and increased mortality.
[39]	Botswana	Higher parasite loads	Lower reproductive rates	Elevated young livestock mortality	Cross-sectional study, lab analysis	Land degradation results in higher parasite burdens and lower reproductive success, increasing young livestock deaths.
[23]	Kenya	Increased respiratory and digestive issues	Decline in wool and milk production	Higher lamb mortality	Observational study, interviews	Dust and poor vegetation from degraded lands contribute to respiratory and digestive problems, reducing wool and milk production, and increasing lamb mortality.
[18]	Ethiopia	Malnutrition and weakened immunity	Lower overall herd productivity	Spike in drought-related deaths	Survey, field observation	Degradation-related malnutrition weakens immunity, reducing herd productivity and increasing mortality during drought periods.
[41]	Tanzania	Reduced fertility rates	Lowered birth rates	Increased perinatal mortality	Case study, veterinary reports	Nutrient-deficient forage due to land degradation leads to reduced fertility and higher perinatal mortality, directly impacting herd sustainability.
[42]	Zambia	Stress-related health conditions	Decreased milk yield	Higher incidence of miscarriages	Mixed-methods approach	Environmental stress from land degradation contributes to stress-related conditions, reducing milk yield and increasing miscarriage rates among pregnant livestock.
[13]	Malawi	Increased susceptibility to zoonotic diseases	Decline in meat quality	Rising deaths during dry season	Field surveys, health monitoring	Land degradation exacerbates exposure to zoonotic diseases, affecting meat quality and increasing death rates during dry seasons due to limited resources.
[21]	Zimbabwe	Compromised immune response	Lower weaning weights	Increased mortality during disease outbreaks	Longitudinal health monitoring	Land degradation results in compromised immune responses, leading to lower weaning weights and increased mortality during disease outbreaks, particularly in young livestock.

Table 3. Impact of land degradation on livestock health, productivity, and mortality.

References	Study Areas	Health Impacts	Productivity Impacts	Mortality Rates	Methodology	Key Findings
[14]	South Africa	Increased disease incidence	Reduced milk and meat yield	Higher calf mortality	Field experiments, veterinary records	Increased land degradation correlates with higher disease incidence and reduced productivity, leading to higher mortality.
[17]	Namibia	Poor nutritional status	Decreased weight gain	Increased adult livestock deaths	Longitudinal study, surveys	Poor forage quality from degraded lands leads to poor nutrition, weight loss, and increased mortality.
[39]	Botswana	Higher parasite loads	Lower reproductive rates	Elevated young livestock mortality	Cross-sectional study, lab analysis	Land degradation results in higher parasite burdens and lower reproductive success, increasing young livestock deaths.
[23]	Kenya	Increased respiratory and digestive issues	Decline in wool and milk production	Higher lamb mortality	Observational study, interviews	Dust and poor vegetation from degraded lands contribute to respiratory and digestive problems, reducing wool and milk production, and increasing lamb mortality.
[18]	Ethiopia	Malnutrition and weakened immunity	Lower overall herd productivity	Spike in drought-related deaths	Survey, field observation	Degradation-related malnutrition weakens immunity, reducing herd productivity and increasing mortality during drought periods.
[41]	Tanzania	Reduced fertility rates	Lowered birth rates	Increased perinatal mortality	Case study, veterinary reports	Nutrient-deficient forage due to land degradation leads to reduced fertility and higher perinatal mortality, directly impacting herd sustainability.
[42]	Zambia	Stress-related health conditions	Decreased milk yield	Higher incidence of miscarriages	Mixed-methods approach	Environmental stress from land degradation contributes to stress-related conditions, reducing milk yield and increasing miscarriage rates among pregnant livestock.
[13]	Malawi	Increased susceptibility to zoonotic diseases	Decline in meat quality	Rising deaths during dry season	Field surveys, health monitoring	Land degradation exacerbates exposure to zoonotic diseases, affecting meat quality and increasing death rates during dry seasons due to limited resources.
[21]	Zimbabwe	Compromised immune response	Lower weaning weights	Increased mortality during disease outbreaks	Longitudinal health monitoring	Land degradation results in compromised immune responses, leading to lower weaning weights and increased mortality during disease outbreaks, particularly in young livestock.

The study by Oba and Kaitira [41] in Tanzania also highlights how nutrient-deficient forage from degraded lands leads to reduced fertility rates, lower birth rates, and increased perinatal mortality, directly impacting herd sustainability. This finding points to the long-term consequences of land degradation, where reduced reproductive success can have cascading effects on herd populations over time. The study by Dregne [42] in Zambia further illustrates the stress-related health conditions that arise from environmental degradation, which result in decreased milk yield and a higher incidence of miscarriages among pregnant livestock. This adds another layer of complexity to the understanding of how environmental factors influence livestock productivity and reproductive health. Munthali et al. [36] discussed the increased susceptibility of livestock to zoonotic diseases in degraded environments in Malawi, which affects the meat quality and raises mortality rates during dry seasons. This study underscores the intersection of environmental degradation with public health concerns, as degraded lands not only harm livestock but also pose risks to human health through the spread of zoonotic diseases. Finally, Moyo et al. [21] highlight how land degradation in Zimbabwe has led to compromised immune responses in livestock, resulting in lower weaning weights and increased mortality during disease outbreaks, particularly in young animals. This finding is crucial as it demonstrates the long-term impacts of degraded environments on the resilience and survival of livestock, especially during critical life stages. Overall, these studies collectively paint a stark picture of the detrimental effects of land degradation on livestock health, productivity, and mortality across sub-Saharan Africa. The evidence points to a pressing need for sustainable land management practices that can mitigate these impacts and support the resilience of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in the region.

3.3. Socio-Economic Consequences of Reduced Livestock Productivity

Table 4 outlines the profound socio-economic consequences of reduced livestock productivity across various regions in sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting the cascading effects of land degradation on livelihood and food security. In Kenya, for instance, the direct correlation between lower livestock productivity and reduced household income underscores the economic vulnerability faced by pastoral communities [15]. This reduction in income exacerbates food insecurity, as households lose their purchasing power and access to essential food items. Similarly, in Zimbabwe, the link between decreased livestock productivity and rising poverty levels is evident [2]. This economic strain pushes communities toward a greater reliance on food aid, indicating a loss of self-sufficiency and resilience in the face of environmental challenges. The situation in Ethiopia, as detailed by Bekele et al. [18], further illustrates the socio-economic impacts, where declining livestock yields prompt rural–urban migration. This migration is often a survival strategy, as families seek alternative livelihoods in urban areas. However, this shift is accompanied by increased nutritional deficiencies, reflecting the loss of access to diverse and nutrient-rich diets that livestock traditionally provided. In South Africa, Gxasheka et al. [5] observed that land degradation and reduced livestock productivity were forcing communities to abandon traditional pastoral livelihoods, leading to a decline in dietary diversity and overall food security. This loss of traditional livelihoods also erodes cultural practices and knowledge systems tied to pastoralism.

Table 4. Socio-economic consequences of reduced livestock productivity.

References	Study Areas	Impact on Livelihoods	Impact on Food Security	Methodology	Key Findings
[15]	Kenya	Reduced income from livestock sales	Increased food insecurity	Household surveys, economic analysis	Lower livestock productivity directly reduces household income and food security.
[2]	Zimbabwe	Increased poverty	Reliance on food aid	Mixed methods, focus groups	Decreased livestock productivity exacerbates poverty, leading to a higher dependence on food aid.
[18]	Ethiopia	Migration to urban areas	Nutritional deficiencies	Longitudinal survey, interviews	Reduced livestock yields lead to rural–urban migration and higher rates of nutritional deficiencies.
[5]	South Africa	Loss of traditional livelihoods	Decline in dietary diversity	Case studies, participatory rural appraisal	Land degradation and reduced livestock productivity force communities to abandon traditional pastoral livelihoods, leading to a decline in dietary diversity and food security.
[41]	Tanzania	Increased vulnerability to economic shocks	Lower access to animal-source foods	Cross-sectional survey, economic modeling	Declining livestock productivity heightens household vulnerability to economic shocks, reducing access to nutritious animal-source foods and worsening food insecurity.
[42]	Zambia	Diversification into non-agricultural work	Reduced protein intake	Household surveys, livelihood assessments	As livestock productivity decreases, households diversify into non-agricultural work, leading to reduced protein intake due to the lower availability of animal products.

Table 4. Socio-economic consequences of reduced livestock productivity.

References	Study Areas	Impact on Livelihoods	Impact on Food Security	Methodology	Key Findings
[15]	Kenya	Reduced income from livestock sales	Increased food insecurity	Household surveys, economic analysis	Lower livestock productivity directly reduces household income and food security.
[2]	Zimbabwe	Increased poverty	Reliance on food aid	Mixed methods, focus groups	Decreased livestock productivity exacerbates poverty, leading to a higher dependence on food aid.
[18]	Ethiopia	Migration to urban areas	Nutritional deficiencies	Longitudinal survey, interviews	Reduced livestock yields lead to rural–urban migration and higher rates of nutritional deficiencies.
[5]	South Africa	Loss of traditional livelihoods	Decline in dietary diversity	Case studies, participatory rural appraisal	Land degradation and reduced livestock productivity force communities to abandon traditional pastoral livelihoods, leading to a decline in dietary diversity and food security.
[41]	Tanzania	Increased vulnerability to economic shocks	Lower access to animal-source foods	Cross-sectional survey, economic modeling	Declining livestock productivity heightens household vulnerability to economic shocks, reducing access to nutritious animal-source foods and worsening food insecurity.
[42]	Zambia	Diversification into non-agricultural work	Reduced protein intake	Household surveys, livelihood assessments	As livestock productivity decreases, households diversify into non-agricultural work, leading to reduced protein intake due to the lower availability of animal products.

In Tanzania, the research by Oba and Kaitira [41] shows that declining livestock productivity increases household vulnerability to economic shocks. This situation reduces access to animal-source foods, which are vital for nutrition, particularly in communities that heavily rely on livestock. The study from Zambia by Dregne [42] reveals a trend toward diversification into non-agricultural work as livestock productivity diminishes. However, this shift comes at the cost of reduced protein intake, as households have less access to animal products. Munthali et al. [13] highlight a concerning impact in Malawi, where decreased milk production leads to lower household income and higher rates of malnutrition among children. This points to the critical role of livestock in providing both income and nutritional security. The study by Taiye et al. [22] in Niger brings attention to the gendered impacts of land degradation, with female-headed households disproportionately affected. These households face heightened food insecurity, especially during dry seasons when livestock productivity is at its lowest. In Uganda, Mugwera and Emmanuel [43] demonstrate that severe land degradation often forces households to sell off livestock assets, increasing their dependence on grain purchases and further diminishing food security. This loss of livestock assets also reduces long-term economic stability and resilience. Lastly, Sebogo et al. [44] in Botswana highlight how declining livestock productivity drives a shift toward subsistence farming. This shift, while a coping strategy, increases vulnerability to hunger during periods of crop failure, as subsistence farming is less reliable than livestock-based livelihoods. These findings collectively underscore the intricate link between environmental degradation, economic stability, and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. They emphasize the urgent need for interventions that address both the ecological and socio-economic dimensions of land degradation to safeguard livelihoods and enhance resilience against future shocks.

3.4. Effectiveness of Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

The results from Table 5 highlight the varied effectiveness of different mitigation and adaptation strategies implemented across several African countries to combat land degradation and its impacts on livestock productivity. Rotational grazing, for instance, demonstrated a high degree of effectiveness in Zambia, where it significantly improved rangeland health and livestock productivity [42]. This method allows pastures to recover and reduces overgrazing, which is a key contributor to land degradation. In contrast, agroforestry practices in Tanzania yielded only moderate success [45]. While these practices effectively reduced soil erosion and improved forage quality, their success was contingent on factors such as community engagement and the specific ecological conditions of the area. This indicates that agroforestry, while beneficial, may not be universally applicable or equally effective in all settings. Similarly, soil conservation techniques such as terracing and mulching in Kenya were highly effective in reducing land degradation and improving livestock yields [15]. These methods were found, through field trials and farmer surveys, to not only prevent soil erosion but also to enhance soil moisture retention, which is crucial for sustaining pasture growth and livestock feed during dry seasons. In Malawi, integrated livestock–crop systems offered a moderate level of effectiveness [13]. These systems, which combine crop and livestock production, help in recycling nutrients, improving soil fertility, and providing supplementary feed for livestock. However, the sustainability of these systems depends heavily on proper management and balancing the needs of both crops and livestock.

The controlled burning approach in Zimbabwe was less effective, with results varying between low to moderate levels of effectiveness [2,37]. Controlled burning, while useful for managing bush encroachment, needs to be carefully managed. The frequency and intensity of fires must be optimized to avoid further degradation, suggesting that while controlled burning has potential, it is a tool that requires precise implementation to be effective. Water harvesting techniques in Botswana showed a high level of effectiveness, especially in arid regions where water scarcity limits livestock productivity [46,47]. Techniques like small dams and ponds were found to significantly improve water availability during dry seasons, thus supporting livestock health and reducing mortality rates. Community involvement proved crucial in community-based rangeland management strategies in Ethiopia, which were also highly effective [18]. This approach fosters collective action and responsibility among local communities, leading to successful rangeland restoration and improved livestock health. Programs like livestock restocking in Uganda [43] and pasture improvement in Tanzania were moderately to highly effective [48]. Restocking helped communities to recover from shocks like droughts or disease outbreaks, but its success was often tied to the level of ongoing support and training provided. Similarly, pasture improvement programs showed significant promise, particularly when they included reseeding and fertilization efforts that enhanced biomass and supported livestock growth. Lastly, livestock health monitoring in Eswatini was highly effective in reducing disease incidence and improving herd productivity [49,50,51]. Regular monitoring and vaccination programs ensure timely intervention, reducing mortality and enhancing overall livestock health [52,53]. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of context-specific strategies tailored to the unique environmental, social, and economic conditions of each region. The effectiveness of these interventions highlights the potential for improving livestock productivity and sustainability in the face of land degradation, provided that they are implemented with careful consideration of local conditions and supported by ongoing community engagement and education.

Table 5. Effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation strategies.

References	Study Areas	Intervention	Effectiveness	Methodology	Key Findings
[42]	Zambia	Rotational grazing	High	Controlled experiment, field observations	Rotational grazing significantly improves rangeland health and livestock productivity.
[45]	Tanzania	Agroforestry	Moderate	Case studies, participatory research	Agroforestry practices help reduce soil erosion and improve forage quality with moderate success.
[15]	Kenya	Soil conservation techniques	High	Field trials, farmer surveys	Soil conservation techniques, including terracing and mulching, show high effectiveness in reducing degradation and improving livestock yields.
[13]	Malawi	Integrated livestock–crop systems	Moderate	Mixed methods, longitudinal study	Integrated livestock–crop systems enhance soil fertility and provide supplementary feed, but require careful management to be sustainable.
[2]	Zimbabwe	Controlled burning	Low to moderate	Experimental plots, historical data	Controlled burning helps manage bush encroachment and improve grazing conditions, but its effectiveness varies based on the fire frequency and intensity.
[47]	Botswana	Water harvesting techniques	High	Case studies, community workshops	Water harvesting techniques, such as small dams and ponds, significantly improve water availability for livestock during dry seasons, boosting productivity.
[18]	Ethiopia	Community-based rangeland management	High	Participatory rural appraisal, interviews	Community-based rangeland management fosters collective action in rangeland restoration, leading to improved forage availability and livestock health.
[43]	Uganda	Livestock restocking programs	Moderate	Household surveys, program evaluation	Livestock restocking programs help rebuild herds after droughts or disease outbreaks, with moderate success depending on follow-up support and training.
[40]	Kenya	Drought-resistant forage species	High	Field trials, laboratory analysis	Introduction of drought-resistant forage species enhances rangeland resilience, ensuring consistent livestock feed during drought periods, leading to sustained productivity.
[48]	Tanzania	Pasture improvement programs	Moderate to high	Experimental designs, participatory approaches	Pasture improvement programs, including reseeding and fertilization, show moderate to high effectiveness in increasing biomass and supporting livestock growth.
[49]	Eswatini	Livestock health monitoring	High	Veterinary surveys, health records	Regular livestock health monitoring and vaccination programs significantly reduce disease incidence and improve overall herd productivity and survival rates.

Table 5. Effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation strategies.

References	Study Areas	Intervention	Effectiveness	Methodology	Key Findings
[42]	Zambia	Rotational grazing	High	Controlled experiment, field observations	Rotational grazing significantly improves rangeland health and livestock productivity.
[45]	Tanzania	Agroforestry	Moderate	Case studies, participatory research	Agroforestry practices help reduce soil erosion and improve forage quality with moderate success.
[15]	Kenya	Soil conservation techniques	High	Field trials, farmer surveys	Soil conservation techniques, including terracing and mulching, show high effectiveness in reducing degradation and improving livestock yields.
[13]	Malawi	Integrated livestock–crop systems	Moderate	Mixed methods, longitudinal study	Integrated livestock–crop systems enhance soil fertility and provide supplementary feed, but require careful management to be sustainable.
[2]	Zimbabwe	Controlled burning	Low to moderate	Experimental plots, historical data	Controlled burning helps manage bush encroachment and improve grazing conditions, but its effectiveness varies based on the fire frequency and intensity.
[47]	Botswana	Water harvesting techniques	High	Case studies, community workshops	Water harvesting techniques, such as small dams and ponds, significantly improve water availability for livestock during dry seasons, boosting productivity.
[18]	Ethiopia	Community-based rangeland management	High	Participatory rural appraisal, interviews	Community-based rangeland management fosters collective action in rangeland restoration, leading to improved forage availability and livestock health.
[43]	Uganda	Livestock restocking programs	Moderate	Household surveys, program evaluation	Livestock restocking programs help rebuild herds after droughts or disease outbreaks, with moderate success depending on follow-up support and training.
[40]	Kenya	Drought-resistant forage species	High	Field trials, laboratory analysis	Introduction of drought-resistant forage species enhances rangeland resilience, ensuring consistent livestock feed during drought periods, leading to sustained productivity.
[48]	Tanzania	Pasture improvement programs	Moderate to high	Experimental designs, participatory approaches	Pasture improvement programs, including reseeding and fertilization, show moderate to high effectiveness in increasing biomass and supporting livestock growth.
[49]	Eswatini	Livestock health monitoring	High	Veterinary surveys, health records	Regular livestock health monitoring and vaccination programs significantly reduce disease incidence and improve overall herd productivity and survival rates.

3.5. Key Themes and Insights from the Word Cloud on Land Degradation, Rangelands, and Livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa

As illustrated in Figure 2, the word cloud generated from the systematic review on land degradation, rangelands, and livestock in sub-Saharan Africa visually emphasizes the central themes and frequently discussed terms in the literature. The prominence of terms such as “land”, “livestock”, “drivers”, “economic”, and “mortality” highlights the critical interconnections between land degradation and livestock productivity. “Land degradation” is a major focus, reflecting its pervasive impact on rangelands and livestock health, and it is supported by studies like those of Bennet et al. [14] and Matarira et al. [20]. The term “drivers” underscores the importance of understanding both biophysical (e.g., “soil erosion”, “drought”, “climate change”) and socio-economic factors (e.g., “poverty”, “land tenure”, “economic instability”) that contribute to land degradation, as highlighted by Bekele et al. [18]. The significant presence of “mortality” in the word cloud indicates the severe consequences of land degradation on livestock health, leading to increased mortality rates due to factors like disease and poor nutrition. This is corroborated by Mganga et al. [23], which notes the direct correlation between degraded rangelands and higher livestock mortality. The term “economic” is also prominent, illustrating the broader socio-economic impacts, including reduced income, heightened poverty, and food insecurity, which resonate with findings from Sibanda et al. [2].

Additionally, the word cloud highlights various mitigation and adaptation strategies such as “rotational grazing”, “agroforestry”, and “soil conservation”. These terms suggest the importance of implementing sustainable land management practices to combat degradation, as evidenced by Kahumba and Tefera [6]. The inclusion of “policy” and “resilience” further emphasizes the need for supportive frameworks and community resilience to enhance the effectiveness of these interventions, aligning with Bourne et al. [7]. Overall, the word cloud provides a comprehensive snapshot of the key themes and interrelationships within the systematic review, reinforcing the necessity of integrated approaches to address land degradation and to improve livestock sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa.

3.6. Insights from the Co-Occurrence Network Diagram on Land Degradation, Rangelands, and Livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa

As reflected in Figure 3, the co-occurrence network diagram generated from the systematic review on land degradation, rangelands, and livestock in sub-Saharan Africa reveals complex relationships among various factors influencing the region’s ecological and socio-economic landscapes. Central nodes such as “land degradation” and “livestock productivity” are highly interconnected, underscoring their pivotal roles in the review. The dense web of connections around “land degradation” signifies its profound impact on multiple dimensions, including “health”, “nutrition”, “mortality”, and “productivity” of livestock, as supported by Hoffman et al. [4], who highlight the detrimental effects of land degradation on forage quality and livestock health. Key biophysical drivers like “soil erosion”, “drought”, “invasive species”, and “climate change” are prominently featured, aligning with Ringrose et al. [10], who emphasize climate change’s significant role in exacerbating land degradation. Socio-economic drivers such as “poverty”, “land tenure”, and “economic instability” are equally critical, reflecting the findings by Solomon et al. [38] on how socio-economic conditions contribute to land degradation.

The network also highlights the direct consequences of land degradation on livestock, including increased “disease incidence”, reduced “milk” and “meat yield”, and higher “calf mortality”, which is corroborated by the reports by Ward et al. [17]. Furthermore, the socio-economic impacts, such as reduced “income”, heightened “poverty”, and “food insecurity”, are evident, supporting Bekele et al. [19], who discuss the adverse effects of declining livestock productivity on pastoralist communities. Mitigation strategies like “rotational grazing”, “agroforestry”, and “soil conservation” show significant connections, emphasizing their importance in combating land degradation, as evidenced by Gxasheka et al. [5]. The role of “policy” and “resilience” in enhancing the effectiveness of these interventions is also highlighted, resonating with the argument by Munthali et al. [13] on the necessity of supportive policies for sustainable land management. This network diagram provides a comprehensive visualization of the interconnected factors affecting rangeland health and livestock productivity, reinforcing the need for integrated approaches to address land degradation in sub-Saharan Africa.

4. Recommendations for Policy Makers in Charge of These Problems and Future Research Directions

Despite significant progress in understanding the impacts of land degradation on livestock productivity and rural livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa, several gaps remain that warrant further investigation. One key gap is the limited integration of traditional knowledge systems with modern scientific approaches in developing sustainable land management practices. Traditional pastoralist communities possess valuable insights into land management and livestock care, yet their knowledge is often underutilized in policy and intervention strategies. Future research should focus on bridging this gap by incorporating indigenous knowledge into land restoration and livestock management practices, thereby enhancing the resilience and sustainability of these interventions. Another gap lies in the insufficient understanding of the long-term socio-economic impacts of land degradation on different demographic groups, particularly women and youth. Land degradation and reduced livestock productivity can have gendered impacts, disproportionately affecting female-headed households and limiting opportunities for youth in rural areas. More gender-sensitive and youth-focused research is essential to fully understand the unique challenges and opportunities that these groups face in the context of land degradation and livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Women play a pivotal role in managing rangelands and livestock, often being responsible for tasks such as feeding, watering, and the healthcare of the animals. Despite their crucial contributions, their voices and perspectives are frequently under-represented in decision-making processes related to land management. Therefore, research that highlights the specific needs, constraints, and contributions of women can lead to more inclusive and effective strategies for sustainable land management. Similarly, youth represent a significant demographic in many rural communities, yet they often face barriers such as limited access to land, resources, and knowledge. Engaging youth through targeted research and capacity-building initiatives is crucial for fostering their involvement in sustainable practices and ensuring the long-term resilience of rangelands. By raising awareness and sensitizing youth to the challenges of land degradation, we can empower them to become active agents of change in their communities. Such research is vital for developing strategies that are not only effective in mitigating land degradation but also equitable and inclusive, addressing the diverse needs of all the stakeholders involved.

Additionally, while several studies have documented the effectiveness of various mitigation and adaptation strategies, there is a need for more comprehensive evaluations that consider the scalability and sustainability of these interventions across diverse ecological and socio-economic contexts. Future research should aim to identify best practices that can be adapted to different regions within sub-Saharan Africa, taking into account local environmental conditions, cultural practices, and economic constraints. Climate change remains a significant driver of land degradation, yet its interactions with other factors such as land-use changes, policy interventions, and socio-economic shifts are not fully understood. Future research should adopt an integrated approach that examines the cumulative impacts of climate change alongside other drivers of land degradation, providing a more holistic understanding of the challenges and opportunities for sustainable land management. Lastly, there is a need for enhanced data collection and monitoring systems that can provide real-time information on land degradation and its impacts on livestock productivity. Developing and implementing such systems will enable more timely and effective responses to emerging threats, supporting adaptive management and policy-making. In conclusion, addressing these gaps through interdisciplinary and participatory research approaches will be crucial for developing effective strategies to combat land degradation and to enhance livestock sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa.

5. Potential Limitations

While this systematic review provides valuable insights into the relationship between land degradation and livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa, several potential limitations should be acknowledged. First, the review is inherently limited by the availability and accessibility of published studies. The inclusion criteria restricted the selection to English-language articles, potentially excluding relevant studies published in other languages. This language bias may limit the comprehensiveness of the findings, particularly in regions where significant research has been conducted in languages other than English. Second, the focus on peer-reviewed journal articles and other formal publications may overlook gray literature, such as reports, theses, and government documents, which can contain important data and insights. While peer-reviewed literature is generally more reliable, excluding gray literature may result in a narrower view of the topic. Third, the studies included in the review vary widely in their methodologies, study designs, and geographical coverage. This heterogeneity can pose challenges in synthesizing the findings and drawing broad conclusions. Differences in study design, sample sizes, and data collection methods can lead to variations in reported outcomes, making it difficult to generalize findings across different contexts.

Additionally, the review’s reliance on published studies may introduce a publication bias, where studies with significant or positive results are more likely to be published than those with null or negative findings. This bias could skew the review’s conclusions, overemphasizing the impacts of land degradation on livestock productivity. Another limitation is the temporal scope of the included studies. Many studies may not account for recent changes in climate, policy, or land management practices that could influence the current state of land degradation and livestock productivity. The rapidly changing environmental and socio-economic conditions in sub-Saharan Africa mean that findings from older studies may not fully reflect current realities. Finally, the review may be limited by the lack of long-term studies that track the effects of land degradation and mitigation efforts over extended periods. Short-term studies may not capture the full impact of interventions or the long-term consequences of land degradation on livestock and livelihoods. Despite these limitations, the review provides a valuable synthesis of existing knowledge and highlights key areas for future research. Addressing these limitations through more inclusive, comprehensive, and longitudinal studies will be crucial for advancing our understanding of the complex dynamics between land degradation and livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa.

6. Conclusions

This systematic review highlights the profound and multifaceted impacts of land degradation on livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Rangelands in this region are vital for the livelihood and food security of millions of people. The evidence indicates that land degradation, driven by both biophysical and socio-economic factors, severely compromises livestock health, productivity, and survival, further exacerbating poverty and food insecurity among rural communities reliant on livestock farming. The review reveals a complex relationship between land degradation and livestock productivity, with drivers such as soil erosion, climate change, and unsustainable land management practices contributing to rangeland degradation. The cascading effects, including reduced forage quality, increased disease incidence, lower reproductive rates, and higher mortality, highlight the interdependence of ecological and socio-economic systems in the region. Mitigation and adaptation strategies, including rotational grazing, agroforestry, and soil conservation techniques, have shown potential in restoring degraded lands and enhancing livestock productivity. However, the success of these strategies often depends on local socio-economic conditions, community involvement, and supportive policy frameworks. Despite progress, significant gaps remain in the understanding and management of land degradation and its impacts on livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. Future research should prioritize long-term studies that incorporate gray literature and investigate the effectiveness of integrated approaches that combine ecological restoration with socio-economic development. Addressing these gaps is crucial for developing sustainable land management practices that protect rangelands and that enhance the resilience and well-being of the communities that depend on them.