Feature Transformation for Efficient Blood Glucose Prediction in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Patients
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Pre-processing of the T1DM dataset is performed including the incorporation of time-consistency in features as per the target values, interpolation for missing values, and filtering to achieve smoothing.
- Based on the relation with blood glucose levels, two event-based features, namely, meal and insulin, are transformed into continuous features, which led to improved accuracy.
- The LSTM and Bi-LSTM-based RNN models are developed and optimized to achieve minimum prediction error for blood glucose levels.
- The proposed models outperformed the state-of-the-art methods for the prediction horizons of 30 and 60 min.
2. Dataset and Pre-Processing
2.1. Dataset
2.2. Feature Vector
2.3. Pre-Processing
2.3.1. Time Coherence
2.3.2. Interpolation
2.3.3. Median Filtering
3. Feature Transformation
3.1. Carbs from Meal to Operative Carbs Transformation
- i
- Based on the assumption of working at a 5 min reference time scale, the first three samples after taking the meal have zero operative carbs.
- ii
- The operative carbs start rising at a rate of 0.11 (11.1%).
- iii
- At the 12th sample or the 60th minute after having the meal, the value of operative carbs attains its maximum value, which is almost equal to the total amount of carbs.
- iv
- After that, the operative carbs start decreasing at a rate of 0.028 (2.8%). It reaches zero after 3 h.
- is the sampling time.
- is the time when the meal is encountered.
- is the effective carbohydrates at any given time.
- is the total amount of carbohydrates taken in a meal.
- is the time when reaches its maximum value .
- is the increasing rate of the curve.
- is the decreasing rate of the curve.
3.2. Bolus Insulin to Active Insulin Transformation
- is the sampling time.
- is the total duration of insulin activity.
- is the time constant of exponential decay.
- is the Rise time factor.
- is the Auxiliary Scale factor.
4. Evaluation Strategy
4.1. Evaluation Metric
4.2. Feature Configurations
- Configuration 1 (C-01): In this scheme, a univariate model is developed using CGM data only.
- Configuration 2 (C-02): For this scheme, a combination of CGM and operative carbs is used as a feature set.
- Configuration 3 (C-03): This is the combination of three features: CGM, operative carbs, and active insulin.
5. Learning Model
5.1. Model Arhitecture
- Total Number of training samples = 10,982.
- Total Number of training samples after resampling and interpolation = 11,611.
- Number of training samples (80%) = 9288 [1548, 6, 1].
- Number of training examples = 1548 (9288/6).
- Number of test samples (20%): 2322 [387, 6, 1].
- Number of test examples 387 (2322/6).
5.2. Model Training and Optimization
6. Results and Discussion
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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ID | Gender | Pump Model | Sensor Band | Train Samples | Test Samples |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
559 | female | 530 G | Basis | 10,796 | 2514 |
563 | male | 530 G | Basis | 12,124 | 2570 |
570 | male | 530 G | Basis | 10,982 | 2745 |
575 | female | 530 G | Basis | 11,866 | 2590 |
588 | female | 530 G | Basis | 12,640 | 2791 |
591 | female | 530 G | Basis | 10,847 | 2760 |
Ser # | Feature Name | Type | Source |
---|---|---|---|
1 | glucose level | periodic | medtronic Sensor |
2 | basal insulin | event | self-Reported |
3 | bolus insulin | event | self-Reported |
4 | finger stick | event | self-Reported |
5 | meal | event | self-Reported |
6 | exercise | event | self-Reported |
7 | sleep | event | self-Reported |
8 | work | event | self-Reported |
9 | hypo Events | event | self-Reported |
10 | air temperature | periodic | basis Sensor |
11 | GSR | periodic | basis Sensor |
12 | heart Rate | periodic | basis Sensor |
13 | skin temperature | periodic | basis Sensor |
14 | sleep | periodic | basis Sensor |
15 | steps | periodic | basis Sensor |
Configuration | RMSE @ PH = 30 min | RMSE @ PH = 60 min | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Vanilla-LSTM | Bi-LSTM | Vanilla-LSTM | Bi-LSTM | |
C-01 | 15.43 | 15.22 | 26.41 | 26.10 |
C-02 | 15.67 | 15.12 | 26.12 | 25.48 |
C-03 | 15.48 | 14.76 | 26.18 | 25.65 |
Patient ID | Configuration | RMSE @ PH = 30 min | RMSE @ PH = 60 min | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vanilla-LSTM | Bi-LSTM | Vanilla-LSTM | Bi-LSTM | ||
588 | C-02 | × | × | 30.44 | 30.17 |
C-03 | 18.29 | 17.55 | × | × | |
563 | C-02 | × | × | 29.98 | 29.11 |
C-03 | 18.58 | 18.14 | × | × |
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Butt, H.; Khosa, I.; Iftikhar, M.A. Feature Transformation for Efficient Blood Glucose Prediction in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Patients. Diagnostics 2023, 13, 340. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13030340
Butt H, Khosa I, Iftikhar MA. Feature Transformation for Efficient Blood Glucose Prediction in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Patients. Diagnostics. 2023; 13(3):340. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13030340
Chicago/Turabian StyleButt, Hatim, Ikramullah Khosa, and Muhammad Aksam Iftikhar. 2023. "Feature Transformation for Efficient Blood Glucose Prediction in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Patients" Diagnostics 13, no. 3: 340. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13030340