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Lubricants
Volume 9
Issue 2
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Lubricants, Volume 9, Issue 2 (February 2021) – 10 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Consistency is considered by many to be the most important property when selecting a grease for an application. The main test for grease consistency, the cone penetration test, demands a large sample and a skilled operator to obtain accurate, repeatable results. Alternative consistency tests are overviewed and compared in this article, where one of them is found to correlate very well with cone penetration. This test involves finding the crossover stress of a grease using a rheometer and has the potential to serve as a reasonable substitute for cone penetration using a much smaller sample and simpler procedure. View this paper.
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11 pages, 438 KiB  
Perspective
The Economic and Environmental Significance of Sustainable Lubricants
by Raj Shah, Mathias Woydt and Stanley Zhang
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020021 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 10169
Abstract
Many industrial processes are dependent on the proper application of modern tribological knowledge for the purposes of maintaining equipment integrity and minimizing total energy losses. Consequently, the development of modern lubricants is vital for satisfying growing performance standards and increasingly stringent environmental regulations. [...] Read more.
Many industrial processes are dependent on the proper application of modern tribological knowledge for the purposes of maintaining equipment integrity and minimizing total energy losses. Consequently, the development of modern lubricants is vital for satisfying growing performance standards and increasingly stringent environmental regulations. Industrial lubricants are regulated based on demanding technical requirements and characteristics, such as high viscosity index, hydraulic stability, corrosion prevention, thermal stability, wide operating temperature ranges, demulsibility, and oxidative stability. Escalating environmental and sustainability concerns have shifted significance towards non-technical criteria for the evaluation of lubricants. Biodegradability and renewability are two influential factors in the discussion regarding the long-term sustainability of future tribological applications. Emphasis is placed on the development of environmentally friendly, non-toxic, and biodegradable lubricants that would minimize industrial pollution associated with oil-related spills and leakages. Bio-based lubricants, manufactured from renewable, organic resources, present themselves as viable alternatives to traditional petroleum-based lubricants. A major section of this review paper will provide a comparative analysis of renewable resource-based lubricants and mineral oil-based lubricants in terms of their chemical properties and respective advantages. Further discussion concerning biolubricants and use of non-edible plant feedstocks will highlight the clear economic and environmental incentives of implementing modern tribological knowledge. This review paper will conclude with the examination of the obstacles that modern day biolubricants must overcome and the future expectations of green tribology. Full article
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21 pages, 22558 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Morphological Characterization of Electroless-Deposited Ni-P Coatings on Diamond Abrasives
by Lian Ma, Yan Chen, Peter Renner, Dilworth Parkinson, Alex Fang and Hong Liang
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020020 - 20 Feb 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3779
Abstract
Deposition of a coating on rough surfaces faces unique challenges due to the complexity of substrate morphology. In the present research, electroless deposition of a Ni-P coating was successfully deposited on diamond particles. Microtomography was conducted to study the deposition mechanisms. It revealed [...] Read more.
Deposition of a coating on rough surfaces faces unique challenges due to the complexity of substrate morphology. In the present research, electroless deposition of a Ni-P coating was successfully deposited on diamond particles. Microtomography was conducted to study the deposition mechanisms. It revealed that the coating coverage rate on diamond particles was affected by the synergistic action of the deposition time, substrate morphology, and hypophosphite concentration. The best coverage was achieved in a solution with 0.2 mol/L hypophosphite. Two major morphological features of the coating: nodular and smooth, were influenced by the deposition parameters, coating integrity, and substrate morphology. The failure was seen in fractured and peeled off coatings. It was due to residual stress produced by the coalescing of crystallites during the deposition. This failure mechanism explains the tendency of coating fracture at three morphological features of the substrate. This work is beneficial to semiconductor manufacturing where effective cutting in chip fabrication is essential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Industrial Lubricants and Future Development Trends of Tribo-Systems for Tribological Performance Evaluation)
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23 pages, 6108 KiB  
Article
Numerical and Experimental Analysis of the Potential Fuel Savings and Reduction in CO Emissions by Implementing Cylinder Bore Coating Materials Applied to Diesel Engines
by Sofia Orjuela Abril, Carlos Pardo García and Jhon Pabón León
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020019 - 18 Feb 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2699
Abstract
Currently, internal combustion engines contribute to the problem of global warming due to their need to use products derived from fossil resources. To mitigate the above problem, this study proposes the use of coatings on the cylinder bore in order to reduce fuel [...] Read more.
Currently, internal combustion engines contribute to the problem of global warming due to their need to use products derived from fossil resources. To mitigate the above problem, this study proposes the use of coatings on the cylinder bore in order to reduce fuel consumption and polluting emissions. Therefore, in the present study a numerical model is developed in which the tribological behavior, heat fluxes, and leakage of the combustion gases in the chamber are considered to evaluate the influence of the coating. Nickel nanocomposite (NNC) and diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings are considered in the study. The results demonstrate that the NNC coating produces a 32% reduction in the total friction force of the compression ring. The estimated maximum temperatures for the lubricating oil were 214, 202, and 194 °C for the DLC, steel, and NNC materials. Increasing the temperature in the DLC coating can cause a reduction in the tribological performance of the lubricant. The estimates made show that the implementation of the NNC coating allows a maximum reduction of 5.28 ton of fuel and 39.30 kg of CO emissions, which are based on the global fleet of diesel engines forecast for the year 2025 (corresponding to one hundred and eighty million engines) and a test time of 1800 s. The proposed numerical model allows future analyses to be carried out for other types of materials used as coatings. Additionally, the model can be expanded and adapted to consider other systems that involve friction processes in the engine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Tribology and LCA Applied to Thermal Machines)
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14 pages, 3754 KiB  
Article
Improvement of Tilting-Pad Journal Bearing Operating Characteristics by Application of Eddy Grooves
by Eckhard Schüler and Olaf Berner
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020018 - 10 Feb 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3095
Abstract
In high speed, high load fluid-film bearings, the laminar-turbulent flow transition can lead to a considerable reduction of the maximum bearing temperatures, due to a homogenization of the fluid-film temperature in radial direction. Since this phenomenon only occurs significantly in large bearings or [...] Read more.
In high speed, high load fluid-film bearings, the laminar-turbulent flow transition can lead to a considerable reduction of the maximum bearing temperatures, due to a homogenization of the fluid-film temperature in radial direction. Since this phenomenon only occurs significantly in large bearings or at very high sliding speeds, means to achieve the effect at lower speeds have been investigated in the past. This paper shows an experimental investigation of this effect and how it can be used for smaller bearings by optimized eddy grooves, machined into the bearing surface. The investigations were carried out on a Miba journal bearing test rig with Ø120 mm shaft diameter at speeds between 50 m/s–110 m/s and at specific bearing loads up to 4.0 MPa. To investigate the potential of this technology, additional temperature probes were installed at the crucial position directly in the sliding surface of an up-to-date tilting pad journal bearing. The results show that the achieved surface temperature reduction with the optimized eddy grooves is significant and represents a considerable enhancement of bearing load capacity. This increase in performance opens new options for the design of bearings and related turbomachinery applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lubricated Bearings)
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30 pages, 2517 KiB  
Article
Modeling Adhesive Hysteresis
by Anle Wang, Yunong Zhou and Martin H. Müser
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020017 - 8 Feb 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3321
Abstract
When an elastomer approaches or retracts from an adhesive indenter, the elastomer’s surface can suddenly become unstable and reshape itself quasi-discontinuously, e.g., when small-scale asperities jump into or snap out of contact. Such dynamics lead to a hysteresis between approach and retraction. In [...] Read more.
When an elastomer approaches or retracts from an adhesive indenter, the elastomer’s surface can suddenly become unstable and reshape itself quasi-discontinuously, e.g., when small-scale asperities jump into or snap out of contact. Such dynamics lead to a hysteresis between approach and retraction. In this study, we quantify numerically and analytically the ensuing unavoidable energy loss for rigid indenters with flat, Hertzian and randomly rough profiles. The range of adhesion turns out to be central, in particular during the rarely modeled approach to contact. For example, negligible traction on approach but quite noticeable adhesion for nominal plane contacts hinges on the use of short-range adhesion. Central attention is paid to the design of cohesive-zone models for the efficient simulation of dynamical processes. Our study includes a Griffith’s type analysis for the energy lost during fracture and regeneration of a flat interface. It reveals that the leading-order corrections of the energy loss are due to the finite-range adhesion scale at best, with the third root of the linear mesh size, while leading-order errors in the pull-off force disappear linearly. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction Mechanisms)
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20 pages, 4477 KiB  
Article
Investigation of the Tribological Behavior of Mineral Lubricant Using Copper Oxide Nano Additives
by Ahmed A. Abdel-Rehim, Sayed Akl and Sherif Elsoudy
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020016 - 7 Feb 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4319
Abstract
In this study, tribological properties of custom formulated and stabilized nano lubricant are investigated. Spherical CuO nanoparticles are suspended in 20W-50 mineral base lubricant using Oleic Acid (OA) as a surfactant. Three different nano lubricant concentrations with 0.2, 0.5, and 1 wt.% were [...] Read more.
In this study, tribological properties of custom formulated and stabilized nano lubricant are investigated. Spherical CuO nanoparticles are suspended in 20W-50 mineral base lubricant using Oleic Acid (OA) as a surfactant. Three different nano lubricant concentrations with 0.2, 0.5, and 1 wt.% were analyzed through ASTM G-99 pin-on-disc tribometer standardized test under boundary/mixed lubrication regimes. The generated friction and wear analyses confirm a consolidation of tribological properties with a reduction in friction coefficient in the range of 14.59–42.92%, compared with the base lubricant. Analysis of worn surfaces (SEM/EDX) as well as (AFM) was conducted. Combined hypotheses were proposed from the analysis of worn surfaces; these hypotheses suggested that CuO nanoparticles exhibit an integrated effect of two phenomenal lubrication mechanisms. Additionally, dispersion stability evaluation of the suspended nanoparticles was performed through Zeta potential, (FTIR), and sedimentation analyses. Stability results showed that steric stabilization is the dominating effect of the repulsive forces between nanoparticles, surpassing the electrostatic repulsive forces. Full article
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23 pages, 4585 KiB  
Article
Synovial Joints. Tribology, Regeneration, Regenerative Rehabilitation and Arthroplasty
by Valentin L. Popov, Aleksandr M. Poliakov and Vladimir I. Pakhaliuk
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020015 - 2 Feb 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5288
Abstract
Synovial joints are unique biological tribosystems that allow a person to perform a wide range of movements with minimal energy consumption. In recent years, they have been increasingly called “smart friction units” due to their ability to self-repair and adapt to changing operating [...] Read more.
Synovial joints are unique biological tribosystems that allow a person to perform a wide range of movements with minimal energy consumption. In recent years, they have been increasingly called “smart friction units” due to their ability to self-repair and adapt to changing operating conditions. However, in reality, the elements of the internal structure of the joints under the influence of many factors can degrade rather quickly, leading to serious disease such as osteoarthritis. According to the World Health Organization, osteoarthritis is already one of the 10 most disabling diseases in developed countries. In this regard, at present, fundamental research on synovial joints remains highly relevant. Despite the fact that the synovial joints have already been studied fully, many issues related to their operating, prevention, development of pathology, diagnosis and treatment require more detailed consideration. In this article, we discuss the urgent problems that need to be solved for the development of new pharmacological agents, biomaterials, scaffolds, implants and rehabilitation devices for the prevention, rehabilitation and improvement of the treatment effectiveness of synovial joints at various stages of osteoarthritis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)
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16 pages, 4965 KiB  
Article
Testing Grease Consistency
by Alan Gurt and Michael M. Khonsari
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020014 - 2 Feb 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6903
Abstract
Because of the influential role of consistency in selecting a grease for a given application, accurate and meaningful methodologies for its measurements are vitally important. A new method, recently introduced, uses a rheometer to compress a grease sample to evaluate a relative consistency [...] Read more.
Because of the influential role of consistency in selecting a grease for a given application, accurate and meaningful methodologies for its measurements are vitally important. A new method, recently introduced, uses a rheometer to compress a grease sample to evaluate a relative consistency between a fresh and degraded grease; however, the results of this approach compared to a standard penetrometer and other methods of assessing consistency have not been studied. This paper takes a closer look at the relevant parameters involved in the rheometer penetration test and establishes a recommended procedure for its use. The consistency of various greases is then tested using this method and compared to results obtained from yield stress, crossover stress, and cone penetration tests. The results indicate that rheometer penetration may be used to assess the change in consistency for a given grease but should not be used to compare different greases. For this purpose, the crossover stress method is recommended, which is shown to correlate very well with cone penetration while using a simple procedure and allowing the use of a substantially smaller sample. A strong power law correlation between crossover stress and cone penetration was found for all greases tested and is presented in Figure 12. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grease)
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3 pages, 168 KiB  
Editorial
Acknowledgment to Reviewers of Lubricants in 2020
by Lubricants Editorial Office
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020013 - 25 Jan 2021
Viewed by 1775
Abstract
Peer review is the driving force of journal development, and reviewers are gatekeepers who ensure that Lubricants maintains its standards for the high quality of its published papers [...] Full article
14 pages, 5028 KiB  
Article
An Experimental Study on the Fretting Corrosion Behaviours of Three Material Pairs at Modular Interfaces for Hip Joint Implants
by Jian Pu, Dongsheng Wu, Yali Zhang, Xiaogang Zhang and Zhongmin Jin
Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020012 - 21 Jan 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3197
Abstract
The fretting corrosion behaviours of Al2O3 ceramic/Ti6Al4V alloy, 316 L stainless/Ti6Al4V alloy, and CoCrMo alloy/Ti6Al4V alloy pairs were studied in an in-house developed fretting-corrosion tester. The fretting behaviours were characterized by the Ft-D-N and F [...] Read more.
The fretting corrosion behaviours of Al2O3 ceramic/Ti6Al4V alloy, 316 L stainless/Ti6Al4V alloy, and CoCrMo alloy/Ti6Al4V alloy pairs were studied in an in-house developed fretting-corrosion tester. The fretting behaviours were characterized by the Ft-D-N and Ft/Fn curves. The morphology of the worn surface was analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX), a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and a white light interferometer (WLI). The fretting regimes were found to vary from slip regime (SR) to mixed fretting regime (MFR), with an increase in loads for the Al2O3/Ti6Al4V and 316 L/Ti6Al4V pairs, while for the CoCrMo/Ti6Al4V pair the fretting always remained in SR. The damage mechanism of the Al2O3/Ti6Al4V pair was mainly abrasive wear and corrosive wear, while for the 316 L/Ti6Al4V pair and CoCrMo/Ti6Al4V pair, the wear mechanism was mainly adhesive wear and corrosive wear with slight abrasive wear. The electrochemical impedance spectrum results show that the material transfer layer formed on the surface of the material can protect the material from corrosion for the 316 L/Ti6Al4V and CoCrMo/Ti6Al4V pairs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)
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