Metals

19 pages, 711 KB

Open AccessArticle

Equation of State for Aluminum at High Entropies and Internal Energies in Shock Waves

by Konstantin V. Khishchenko, Kseniya A. Boyarskikh, Liliya R. Obruchkova and Nikolai N. Seredkin

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1189; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111189 (registering DOI) - 25 Oct 2025

The present theoretical work is devoted to the construction of a model of the equation of state for matter, where the specific volume is used as the thermodynamic potential, and the entropy and the thermal part of the internal energy act as thermodynamic [...] Read more.

The present theoretical work is devoted to the construction of a model of the equation of state for matter, where the specific volume is used as the thermodynamic potential, and the entropy and the thermal part of the internal energy act as thermodynamic variables. Based on the proposed model, called STEC, calculations were carried out for aluminum in the region of high internal energies and entropies. A comparison of the calculated shock adiabats with the available data from shock-wave experiments indicates that the constructed equation of state describes well the thermodynamic properties of aluminum up to a shock compression pressure of about 1 TPa. The proposed STEC equation-of-state model can be used in numerical simulations of various processes under extreme conditions at high energy densities. Full article

13 pages, 2211 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Nickel Alloying on the Glass-Forming Ability and Corrosion Resistance of a Pt-Pd-Cu-P Bulk Metallic Glass

by Peiyun Ao, Su Song, Haiyong Liu, Lei Liu and Luliang Liao

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1188; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111188 (registering DOI) - 25 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study systematically investigates the effect of substituting Copper (Cu) with Nickel (Ni) on the glass-forming ability (GFA) and corrosion resistance of a Pt-based bulk metallic glass (BMG). We demonstrate that a minor substitution of 5 at.% Ni for Cu in the Pt [...] Read more.

This study systematically investigates the effect of substituting Copper (Cu) with Nickel (Ni) on the glass-forming ability (GFA) and corrosion resistance of a Pt-based bulk metallic glass (BMG). We demonstrate that a minor substitution of 5 at.% Ni for Cu in the Pt₄₀Pd₂₀Cu₂₀P₂₀ base alloy significantly enhances both properties. The GFA is markedly improved, as evidenced by the supercooled liquid region (ΔTx) widening from 68 K to 91 K. The optimized Pt₄₀Pd₂₀Cu₁₅Ni₅P₂₀ alloy exhibits a compressive fracture strength of 1.38 GPa. Electrochemical tests in a 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution reveal a substantial improvement in corrosion resistance. Compared to the Ni-free baseline alloy, the passive film resistance (R_f) and charge-transfer resistance (R_ct) of the Ni-containing alloy are enhanced by factors of 2.75 and 2.60, respectively. This superior performance is attributed to a synergistic effect wherein Ni alloying both stabilizes the amorphous structure and promotes the formation of a more robust passive film. This work presents a viable strategy for designing cost-effective, high-performance multi-component BMGs for applications in aggressive chloride environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Crystal in Metallic Materials)

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19 pages, 20838 KB

Open AccessArticle

PLGA and Mg(OH)₂ Composite Coatings on Zinc Alloy for Improving Degradation Resistance and Cell Compatibility

by Qian Jiao, Haozhi Xu, Lei Yang, Yan Zhang, Chang Shi, Ming Zhang and Erlin Zhang

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1187; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111187 (registering DOI) - 25 Oct 2025

Abstract

To address the issue of burst release of Zn²⁺ ions in the early degradation stage of degradable zinc alloys and enhance their cellular activity, a composite coating consisting of PLGA and Mg(OH)₂ was prepared on the surface of Zn alloys. The [...] Read more.

To address the issue of burst release of Zn²⁺ ions in the early degradation stage of degradable zinc alloys and enhance their cellular activity, a composite coating consisting of PLGA and Mg(OH)₂ was prepared on the surface of Zn alloys. The incorporation of Mg(OH)₂ serves two purposes: on one hand, it regulates the pH value; on the other hand, it releases Mg²⁺ ions to improve cytocompatibility. A series of tests, including electrochemical corrosion testing, ion dissolution testing, sample morphology observation, and cytotoxicity testing, was conducted to investigate the morphology, degradation process, ion release, and cytocompatibility of the coating. The results demonstrate that the composite coating can effectively reduce the release of Zn²⁺ ions, regulate the pH value after coating degradation, and control the release of Mg²⁺ ions, thereby significantly reducing the toxicity to osteoblasts and improving its biocompatibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Integrity and Functional Performance Induced by Hybrid Processing of Metallic Alloys)

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14 pages, 7228 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Hot Compression on Grain Boundary Evolution and Twin Boundary Characteristics on the Material Properties of Inconel 617 Alloy

by Lidan Yu, Zhi Jia, Yiyou Tu, Junlin Huang, Jun Zhou and Lei Pan

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1186; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111186 (registering DOI) - 25 Oct 2025

Abstract

The evolution of grain size and special grain boundary in Inconel 617 alloy was analyzed by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). It was found that during hot compression, dynamic recrystallization (DRX) occurs, the grain size changes, and a twinning structure is generated, which then [...] Read more.

The evolution of grain size and special grain boundary in Inconel 617 alloy was analyzed by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). It was found that during hot compression, dynamic recrystallization (DRX) occurs, the grain size changes, and a twinning structure is generated, which then affects grain growth. In this paper, the high-angle grain boundaries (HAGBs) and low-angle grain boundaries (LAGBs) under different conditions were studied, and the formation mechanism of special twin boundaries and the proportion of these grain boundaries under different conditions were analyzed. In addition, it was found that the variation in twin boundaries is complex at different temperatures and strain rates, and the formation mechanism of special twin boundaries Σ3, Σ9, and Σ27 is also closely related to temperature and strain rate. Through electrochemical corrosion testing, it was further found that there is a positive relationship between the content of Σ3 and the corrosion resistance of the material. This paper provides theoretical guidance for the microstructural study of Inconel 617 alloy during plastic deformation. Full article

23 pages, 8603 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Properties of Gas-Nitrided Ti-6Al-4V Alloy

by Qiang Li, Yichun Zhu, Sancai Du, Xuyan Liu, Rongbin Li and Yuqing Miao

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1185; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111185 (registering DOI) - 25 Oct 2025

Abstract

To enhance its surface properties, the Ti-6Al-4V alloy was subjected to a nitrogen atmosphere at elevated temperatures. An orthogonal experiment was employed to investigate the effects of nitriding temperature, nitriding duration, and nitrogen flow rate on the surface hardness and the thickness of [...] Read more.

To enhance its surface properties, the Ti-6Al-4V alloy was subjected to a nitrogen atmosphere at elevated temperatures. An orthogonal experiment was employed to investigate the effects of nitriding temperature, nitriding duration, and nitrogen flow rate on the surface hardness and the thickness of the nitrided layer. Mechanical properties were assessed using a micro-Vickers hardness tester and a universal material testing machine. Accelerated corrosion tests were performed by immersing the samples in solutions with varying HF concentrations, while wear resistance was evaluated via a circumferential dry sliding wear test. The results indicate that after nitriding, the subsurface region is primarily composed of TiN, Ti₂N, and Ti₂AlN. Nitriding temperature exerts the greatest influence on the thickness of the nitrided layer, whereas nitrogen flow rate has the least impact. Conversely, nitrogen flow rate shows the strongest effect on surface hardness, with nitriding temperature having the weakest influence. After nitriding, the microstructure becomes coarse with a decrease in substrate hardness. As nitriding temperature and time increase, the thickness of the nitrided layer grows, but both the tensile strength and percentage elongation after fracture decline. The sample nitrided at 850 °C for 2 h under a nitrogen flow rate of 20 mL·min⁻¹ exhibits favorable overall properties. Compared with the as-received sample, its surface hardness increases noticeably, though both the tensile strength and percentage elongation after fracture decrease. In comparison to the continuous weight loss of the as-received sample when immersed in HF solution, the nitrided sample exhibits an initial mass loss of nearly zero, which suggests that the nitrided layer has a protective efficacy. After nitriding, the wear rate is reduced to no more than 3% of that of the as-received sample. Therefore, gas nitriding is considered a feasible technique for improving the surface properties of Ti-6Al-4V in complex environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Modification and Treatment of Metals)

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28 pages, 33891 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Substrate Preheating on Processing Dynamics and Microstructure of Alloy 718 Produced by Directed Energy Deposition Using a Laser Beam and Wire

by Atieh Sahraeidolatkhaneh, Achmad Ariaseta, Gökçe Aydin, Morgan Nilsen and Fredrik Sikström

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1184; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111184 (registering DOI) - 25 Oct 2025

Abstract

Effective thermal management is essential in metal additive manufacturing to ensure process stability and desirable material properties. Directed energy deposition using a laser beam and wire (DED-LB/w) enables the production of large, high-performance components but remains sensitive to adverse thermal effects during multi-layer [...] Read more.

Effective thermal management is essential in metal additive manufacturing to ensure process stability and desirable material properties. Directed energy deposition using a laser beam and wire (DED-LB/w) enables the production of large, high-performance components but remains sensitive to adverse thermal effects during multi-layer deposition due to heat accumulation. While prior studies have investigated interlayer temperature control and substrate preheating in DED modalities, including laser-powder and arc-based systems, the influence of substrate preheating in DED-LB/w has not been thoroughly examined. This study employs substrate preheating to simulate heat accumulation and assess its effects on melt pool geometry, wire–melt pool interaction, and the microstructural evolution of Alloy 718. Experimental results demonstrate that increased substrate temperatures lead to a gradual expansion of the melt pool, with a notable transition occurring beyond 400 °C. Microstructural analysis reveals that elevated preheat temperatures promote coarser secondary dendrite arm spacing and the development of wider columnar grains. Moreover, Nb-rich secondary phases, including the Laves phase, exhibit increased size but relatively unchanged area fractions. Observations from electrical conductance measurements and coaxial visual imaging show that preheat temperature significantly affects the process dynamics and microstructural evolution, providing a basis for advanced process control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Manufacturing Technologies: Friction Stir Welding and Additive Manufacturing of Metals)

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20 pages, 944 KB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Corrosion Behaviour of Magnesium Alloy Using Machine Learning Approaches

by Tülay Yıldırım and Hüseyin Zengin

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111183 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

The primary objective of this study is to develop a machine learning-based predictive model using corrosion rate data for magnesium alloys compiled from the literature. Corrosion rates measured under different deformation rates and heat treatment parameters were analyzed using artificial intelligence algorithms. Variables [...] Read more.

The primary objective of this study is to develop a machine learning-based predictive model using corrosion rate data for magnesium alloys compiled from the literature. Corrosion rates measured under different deformation rates and heat treatment parameters were analyzed using artificial intelligence algorithms. Variables such as chemical composition, heat treatment temperature and time, deformation state, pH, test method, and test duration were used as inputs in the dataset. Various regression algorithms were compared with the PyCaret AutoML library, and the models with the highest accuracy scores were analyzed with Gradient Extra Trees and AdaBoost regression methods. The findings of this study demonstrate that modelling corrosion behaviour by integrating chemical composition with experimental conditions and processing parameters substantially enhances predictive accuracy. The regression models, developed using the PyCaret library, achieved high accuracy scores, producing corrosion rate predictions that are remarkably consistent with experimental values reported in the literature. Detailed tables and figures confirm that the most influential factors governing corrosion were successfully identified, providing valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms. These results highlight the potential of AI-assisted decision systems as powerful tools for material selection and experimental design, and, when supported by larger databases, for predicting the corrosion life of magnesium alloys and guiding the development of new alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Computation and Simulation on Metals)

17 pages, 2270 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Zr Content on the Ignition Conditions and Flame Propagation of Ti_100−xZr_x Alloys

by Xiaohui Zha, Qiwei Ran, Kaikai Feng, Yang Wang, Yuchen Yang, Xinyun Zeng and Cheng Zhang

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1182; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111182 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Zr is a common element in titanium alloys to enhance their mechanical properties; however, its role in combustion remains unknown. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of Zr on the ignition conditions and flame propagation of Ti_100−xZr_x alloys [...] Read more.

Zr is a common element in titanium alloys to enhance their mechanical properties; however, its role in combustion remains unknown. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of Zr on the ignition conditions and flame propagation of Ti_100−xZr_x alloys via promoted ignition-combustion (PIC) tests. Results indicated that increasing Zr content (from 30 at% to 70 at%) decreased the critical oxygen pressure, ignition temperature, and burning velocity of Ti_100−xZr_x alloys. The reduction in ignition conditions was attributed to a decrease in ignition activation energy (from 108.37 kJ/mol to 94.26 kJ/mol) and an increase in combustion heat (from 986.34 kJ/mol to 1049.84 kJ/mol) with Zr addition. Additionally, microstructural analysis indicated that the suppression of flame propagation was attributed to Zr promoting the formation of a dense oxide layer. This hindered oxygen diffusion, thereby suppressing the heat release of oxidation reactions in the oxide zone and the peritectic reaction in the melting zone. These findings provided new insights into optimizing the composition of burn-resistant titanium alloys to inhibit combustion kinetics. Full article

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20 pages, 717 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Issues of the Radiation Hardening Determination of Steels After Ion Irradiation Using Instrumented Indentation

by Boris Margolin, Lyubov Belyaeva and Alexander Sorokin

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1181; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111181 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

The application of the instrumented indentation method with a Berkovich indenter (triangular pyramid) is considered for the determination of microhardness and radiation hardening of ion-irradiated steels. The main difficulties arising in the assessment of the microhardness of a thin irradiated layer are identified. [...] Read more.

The application of the instrumented indentation method with a Berkovich indenter (triangular pyramid) is considered for the determination of microhardness and radiation hardening of ion-irradiated steels. The main difficulties arising in the assessment of the microhardness of a thin irradiated layer are identified. They are connected with the indentation depth effect on microhardness even for homogeneous materials when the indentation diagram is used. A method of microhardness determination is proposed that is based on direct measurement of the indent projection area, taking into account the formed pile-ups. The proposed method allows one practically to exclude the influence of the indentation depth on the microhardness of homogeneous material at least over the depth range from 0.2 to 4 μm and to obtain an adequate assessment of the radiation hardening for a thin irradiated layer with a depth of about 2 μm. Moreover, a formula is proposed for taking into account the influence of pile-ups on the microhardness determined from the indentation diagram using the Oliver–Pharr method. The proposed method and the formula are verified for austenitic and ferritic-martensitic steels. Full article

16 pages, 1409 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of LPBF Parameters and Post-Annealing Temperature on Martensitic Transformation and Superelasticity of Ni-Rich Ni_51.9Ti_48.1 Alloy

by Zheng Xiang, Qin Yang, Shengwang Zhang, Tianhao Zhang, Zhihui Xia, Ming Huang, Jie Chen and Shuke Huang

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1180; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111180 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology offers an effective approach for fabricating high-performance superelastic NiTi alloys. This study achieved Ni_51.9Ti_48.1 alloys with outstanding superelastic properties through a triple optimization design of the initial powder composition, printing process parameters, and post-processing. [...] Read more.

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology offers an effective approach for fabricating high-performance superelastic NiTi alloys. This study achieved Ni_51.9Ti_48.1 alloys with outstanding superelastic properties through a triple optimization design of the initial powder composition, printing process parameters, and post-processing. The phase transformation behavior and microstructure of the alloys were systematically investigated. The results indicate that as energy density increases, the size and quantity of pore defects in LPBF-fabricated Ni_51.9Ti_48.1 alloys increase, phase transformation temperatures rise, and hardness conversely decreases. Ni_51.9Ti_48.1 alloys produced at lower energy densities exhibit fewer dislocations. After annealing at 600 °C, Ni₄Ti₃ and R phases form internally, resulting in a maximum superelasticity of 6.64%. Conversely, Ni_51.9Ti_48.1 alloys produced at higher energy densities exhibited a large number of dislocations and formed subgrains after annealing at 600 °C. Additionally, due to the high void volume fraction, they demonstrated deteriorated superelasticity. Full article

15 pages, 2151 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shot Blasting for Enhancing Wear Resistance and Impact Resistance of SCMnH11 High-Manganese Steel

by Qilin Huang, Zihao Liu, Liang Hao and Te Hu

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1179; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111179 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

In this study, shot blasting was employed to enhance the wear resistance and impact toughness of SCMnH11 high-manganese steel. The steel was first fabricated via vacuum casting, followed by forging and water-toughening treatment. Subsequently, the steel was cut to the required dimensions using [...] Read more.

In this study, shot blasting was employed to enhance the wear resistance and impact toughness of SCMnH11 high-manganese steel. The steel was first fabricated via vacuum casting, followed by forging and water-toughening treatment. Subsequently, the steel was cut to the required dimensions using wire electrical discharge machining before the final shot blasting was performed. The influence of shot blasting duration on the microstructure and mechanical properties was investigated. Shot blasting introduced compressive residual stress and dislocations, resulting in the formation of numerous low-angle grain boundaries. As the shot blasting time increased, the surface grains were progressively refined. The surface hardness increased rapidly from an initial value of approximately 250 HV, reaching a maximum of 643 HV. After 60 min of shot blasting, the thickness of the surface hardened layer reached 600 μm; however, the surface hardness exhibited a trend of first increasing and then decreasing. In contrast, the wear resistance showed the opposite trend. Additionally, the dominant surface wear mechanism transitioned from adhesive wear in the heat-treated sample to abrasive wear in the shot-blasted samples. Compared to the heat-treated sample, the impact toughness of the samples subjected to 5 min and 60 min shot blasting was significantly enhanced. Correspondingly, the fracture mechanism shifted from predominantly ductile fracture to a mixed mode of ductile and cleavage fracture. In summary, shot blasting can effectively enhance the wear resistance and impact resistance of SCMnH11 steel. However, the selection of shot blasting duration is critical. Appropriate parameters can balance work hardening, compressive stress, and surface microcracks, thereby enabling the material to achieve an optimal combination of wear resistance and impact resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metal Failure Analysis)

12 pages, 6540 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Temperature Tensile Properties in the Curved Continuous Casting of M2 High-Speed Steel

by Meichen Pan, Yuheng Dai, Xuejie Si, Tinghui Man, Yu Liu and Han Dong

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111178 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

The industrial production of high-speed steel via continuous casting has been impeded by considerable technical obstacles, due to its high carbon content and fast cooling speed, which predispose it to severe segregation and poor high-temperature plasticity; thus, industrial continuous casting of high-speed steel [...] Read more.

The industrial production of high-speed steel via continuous casting has been impeded by considerable technical obstacles, due to its high carbon content and fast cooling speed, which predispose it to severe segregation and poor high-temperature plasticity; thus, industrial continuous casting of high-speed steel is virtually nonexistent. In 2022, a curved continuous casting process was successfully applied in the production of M2 high-speed steel; in our previous study, it was found that the carbides were finer and better distributed in the billets by curved continuous casting than those in the billets by ingot casting. The change in carbides in the billets is significant in subsequent processes for M2 high-speed steel produced by curved continuous casting. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the high-temperature tensile properties of M2 high-speed steel produced by curved continuous casting. In this paper, high-temperature tensile tests were conducted using a GLEEBLE-3500 simulator (DSI, located in New York State, USA) at different temperatures and holding times with a certain strain rate to obtain the tensile strength and reduction of area, and then the morphology of carbides near the fracture surface was observed. The results showed that the tensile strength and reduction of area increased with the increase in temperature at 850 °C to 950 °C, and there existed a temperature range between 950 °C and 1120 °C with good thermoplasticity and a reduction of area from 45% to 50%. In addition, a sharp drop in thermoplasticity below 5% occurred at 1180 °C, which is due to the significant growth of carbides. The zero-strength temperature and plastic temperature were 1220 °C and 1200 °C, respectively. In addition, with the increase in holding time at 1150 °C, the reduction of area increased from 34% to 54%, and the tensile strength decreased from 92 MPa to 70 MPa and then increased to 82 MPa. The best solution for carbides in M2 high-speed steel produced by curved continuous casting occurred when the range of the P_HJ value was about 28.0 to 30.5. With the increase in P_HJ value, the shape of carbides gradually changed from fibrous to short rod-like and blocky during high-temperature diffusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)

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30 pages, 7041 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review: Factors Controlling Erosion Resistance in Metals Prioritizing the Influence of Material Mechanics and the Related Erosion Models

by Wentao An, Shuo Yang, Zitong Wen, Haodan Pan, Hongxiang Hu and Yugui Zheng

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1177; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111177 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Erosion wear is a primary factor in material failure and is widely observed in hydropower, petroleum, aerospace, and other industrial fields. It is evident from the findings of numerous research studies that both the characteristics of particles and the fluid dynamic parameters are [...] Read more.

Erosion wear is a primary factor in material failure and is widely observed in hydropower, petroleum, aerospace, and other industrial fields. It is evident from the findings of numerous research studies that both the characteristics of particles and the fluid dynamic parameters are significantly associated with the occurrence of erosion damage. However, there has been a paucity of research into the correlation between the mechanical properties of materials and their erosion wear behaviour. This review methodically summarises the latest understanding of erosion wear mechanisms and influencing factors, with a specific focus on how the mechanical properties of materials regulate erosion processes. Furthermore, it provides a concise overview of erosion mechanisms and fluid dynamic factors, while undertaking a critical evaluation of the discrepancies observed among various erosion wear rate prediction models. The overarching objective of this research is to enhance mechanistic comprehension, facilitate the integration of prediction models with material property databases, and furnish a theoretical foundation for the design of erosion-resistant materials and the development of industrial protection strategies. Full article

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17 pages, 25366 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Microstructure and Mechanical Property of 2024Al/W Materials with High W Content Fabricated by Lower-Temperature Sintering

by Cunhui Jiang, Xiaoxuan Pang and Liang Cheng

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1176; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111176 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Al-W composites are lightweight, high-strength, structural–functional integrated materials with tailorable density and excellent X/γ-ray shielding performance, making them promising candidates for nuclear and aerospace applications. In this study, high-W-content 2024Al-W composites were successfully fabricated via spark plasma sintering (SPS) at a relatively low [...] Read more.

Al-W composites are lightweight, high-strength, structural–functional integrated materials with tailorable density and excellent X/γ-ray shielding performance, making them promising candidates for nuclear and aerospace applications. In this study, high-W-content 2024Al-W composites were successfully fabricated via spark plasma sintering (SPS) at a relatively low temperature of 440–500 °C. With increasing sintering temperature, the relative density of the composites increased from 99.6% to 99.9%. A ternary intermetallic compound, Al₁₈Mg₃W₂, was first detected at the Al/W interface at 460 °C. At 480 °C, submicrometre Al₁₈Mg₃W₂ phases formed and cooperated with nanoscale Al₂Cu precipitates, effectively enhancing interfacial bonding and optimizing mechanical properties—yielding an ultimate tensile strength of 266.9 MPa and an elongation of 6.2%. Among the strengthening mechanisms, coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch strengthening contributed the most (~19.2 MPa), followed by load transfer (~4.27 MPa) and Orowan strengthening (~1.17 MPa). These findings provide valuable insights into the low-temperature preparation of high-W-content Al-W structural–functional materials via SPS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metal Matrix Composites)

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16 pages, 4621 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research and Application of Top and Bottom Combined Argon Blowing for 300t Ladle

by Libin Yang, Yibo Yuan, Chengyi Wang, Jinxuan Zhao and Luncai Zhu

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111175 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

This article uses a water model with a ratio of 1:5.75 to study the influence of factors such as the position and flow rate of top and bottom composite argon blowing on the mixing time of molten steel in a 300t ladle at [...] Read more.

This article uses a water model with a ratio of 1:5.75 to study the influence of factors such as the position and flow rate of top and bottom composite argon blowing on the mixing time of molten steel in a 300t ladle at a certain factory. Using engine oil to simulate steel slag, the mass transfer velocity of molten steel under different bottom and top blowing positions and flow rates of the ladle was compared. At the same time, numerical simulation was used to analyze the changes in the flow field of molten steel under different ladle blowing modes. The optimal ladle composite bottom argon process was proposed and industrial experiments were conducted on site. The research results show that the stirring effect of top–bottom composite argon blowing in the ladle is significantly better than that of the pure bottom blowing mode. When the top blowing gun is located 300 mm at the bottom of the ladle, the mixing time of the molten steel is shortest and the stirring efficiency is highest. The higher the insertion depth of the top blowing gun, the faster the flow rate of the molten steel, and the smaller the proportion of dead zones. Top and bottom blowing can improve the mass transfer rate between steel slag and promote the formation of refined slag. Through industrial experiments, it was found that the S content in the molten steel decreased by approximately 22.3% and the total oxygen content decreased by 25% before and after 10 min of composite argon blowing at the top and bottom of the ladle. Full article

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18 pages, 1311 KB

Open AccessArticle

Heat Capacity and Thermodynamic Properties of Photocatalitic Bismuth Tungstate, Bi₂WO₆

by Bogusław Onderka and Anna Kula

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1174; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111174 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

The photocatalytic activity of Bi₂WO₆ Aurivillius phase has been widely exploited for the degradation of a wide range of gaseous and aqueous molecules, as well as microorganisms, under the influence of visible irradiation. Strategies for the development of doped and [...] Read more.

The photocatalytic activity of Bi₂WO₆ Aurivillius phase has been widely exploited for the degradation of a wide range of gaseous and aqueous molecules, as well as microorganisms, under the influence of visible irradiation. Strategies for the development of doped and co-doped bismuth tungstate materials require the thermodynamic data on this phase. The heat capacity of bismuth tungstate, Bi₂WO₆, was investigated using a DSC microcalorimeter on polycrystalline powder samples in the temperature range from 313 to 1103 K (40–830 °C) in two separate runs. The samples were synthesized by solid-state reaction from pure binary oxides at 1033 K (760 °C) in a platinum crucible with cover. The high temperature C_p(T) data were fitted by the Maier–Kelley equation and, from this relation, the standard molar heat capacity of γ-Bi₂WO₆ polymorph was estimated to be at 298.15 K 176.8 ± 3.9 J·K⁻¹·mol⁻¹. A reversible second-order transition of Bi₂WO₆ phase was observed in the experimental temperature range, with a peak close to 940 K (667 °C). Additionally, the extrapolation of C_p(T) to 0 K was proposed using a method based on the multiple Einstein model. Thermodynamic properties (heat capacity C_p(T), entropy S°(T), enthalpy H°(T), Gibbs energy G°(T)) of crystalline γ-Bi₂WO₆ were calculated in the temperature range of 298.15–1123 K (25–850 °C). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Extractive Metallurgy)

16 pages, 5105 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Chemical Composition and Microstructural Transformation of Two Low-Carbon Steels on Fine Blanking and Further Carbonitriding Heat Treatment

by Thomas Chiavazza, Margaux Marnier, Aurélie Achille, Sophie Eve and Eric Hug

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1173; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111173 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

The effect of the chemical composition of two low-carbon steels, C18E and 22MnB5, on their behavior after forming by fine blanking was investigated. A specific tool, adaptable to a tensile testing machine, was designed to replicate an industrial half-cutting process. This tool allows [...] Read more.

The effect of the chemical composition of two low-carbon steels, C18E and 22MnB5, on their behavior after forming by fine blanking was investigated. A specific tool, adaptable to a tensile testing machine, was designed to replicate an industrial half-cutting process. This tool allows for the production of samples with simple geometries and easy modification of the processing conditions. Residual elements in the raw material, concentrated in segregation bands, appear to play a key role in crack initiation within the shear zone during the blanking process. The role of non-metallic inclusions is discussed to explain the presence of large cracks in C18E, while 22MnB5 only shows damage nucleation. After fine blanking, a carbonitriding heat treatment process was performed to modify the initial microstructure and achieve the required mechanical properties in the final parts. Continuous cooling transformation diagrams were created for both steels to guide this process. The results of this study demonstrate the better formability of 22MnB5 by fine blanking, compared to that of C18E. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)

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28 pages, 70123 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synthetic Rebalancing of Imbalanced Macro Etch Testing Data for Deep Learning Image Classification

by Yann Niklas Schöbel, Martin Müller and Frank Mücklich

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1172; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111172 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

The adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) in industrial manufacturing lags behind research progress, partly due to smaller, imbalanced datasets derived from real processes. In non-destructive aerospace testing, this challenge is amplified by the low defect rates of high-quality manufacturing. This study evaluates the [...] Read more.

The adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) in industrial manufacturing lags behind research progress, partly due to smaller, imbalanced datasets derived from real processes. In non-destructive aerospace testing, this challenge is amplified by the low defect rates of high-quality manufacturing. This study evaluates the use of synthetic data, generated via multiresolution stochastic texture synthesis, to mitigate class imbalance in material defect classification for the superalloy Inconel 718. Multiple datasets with increasing imbalance were sampled, and an image classification model was tested under three conditions: native data, data augmentation, and synthetic data inclusion. Additionally, round robin tests with experts assessed the realism and quality of synthetic samples. Results show that synthetic data significantly improved model performance on highly imbalanced datasets. Expert evaluations provided insights into identifiable artificial properties and class-specific accuracy. Finally, a quality assessment model was implemented to filter low-quality synthetic samples, further boosting classification performance to near the balanced reference level. These findings demonstrate that synthetic data generation, combined with quality control, is an effective strategy for addressing class imbalance in industrial AI applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning Models in Metals (2nd Edition))

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15 pages, 6041 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Cu on the Aging Mechanical Properties and Precipitate Behavior of Si-Rich Al-Mg-Si Alloy

by Yu Zhao, Wu Wei, Yi Lu, Zhizheng Rong, Shengping Wen, Hui Huang and Zuoren Nie

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111171 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

The influence of Cu addition on the age-hardening response, mechanical properties, and precipitation evolution of Si-rich Al–Mg–Si alloy was investigated by hardness test, room-temperature tensile test, and transmission electron microscopy analysis. The results indicate that the addition of Cu significantly enhances the aging–hardening [...] Read more.

The influence of Cu addition on the age-hardening response, mechanical properties, and precipitation evolution of Si-rich Al–Mg–Si alloy was investigated by hardness test, room-temperature tensile test, and transmission electron microscopy analysis. The results indicate that the addition of Cu significantly enhances the aging–hardening response of the alloy, promotes the hardness and room-temperature tensile strength under the peak-aged state, and reduces the softening rate during over-aging. The peak-aged tensile strength of the Cu-added alloy (387 MPa) was approximately 9% higher than that of the Cu-free alloy (355 MPa), and the elongation to failure of the Cu-added alloy reached 19%, significantly exceeding the 15% exhibited by the Cu-free alloy. The Cu promotes the precipitation of under-aged and peak-aged β″ strengthening phases within the alloy grains, while also facilitating the formation of lath-shaped Q’ and L phases in peak-aged and over-aged microstructures. This enhances the room-temperature tensile properties of the alloy in the peak-aged state and reduces the attenuation of over-aged properties. Furthermore, Cu influences grain boundary precipitation behavior by promoting the formation of Cu-rich precipitates along grain boundaries and reducing the width of precipitation-free zones (PFZs). Full article

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30 pages, 4411 KB

Open AccessReview

The Tribological Behavior of Electron Beam Powder Bed-Fused Ti-6Al-4V: A Review

by Mohammad Sayem Bin Abdullah and Mamidala Ramulu

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1170; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111170 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

This article comprehensively reviews the tribological behavior of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy manufactured via electron beam powder bed fusion (EB-PBF), an additive manufacturing process for aerospace and biomedical applications. EB-PBF Ti-6Al-4V demonstrates wear resistance that is superior or comparable to conventional Ti-6Al-4V. The reported [...] Read more.

This article comprehensively reviews the tribological behavior of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy manufactured via electron beam powder bed fusion (EB-PBF), an additive manufacturing process for aerospace and biomedical applications. EB-PBF Ti-6Al-4V demonstrates wear resistance that is superior or comparable to conventional Ti-6Al-4V. The reported average friction coefficient ranges between ~0.22 and ~0.75 during sliding wear in dry and lubricated conditions against metallic and ceramic counterparts when loading 1–50 N under varied surface and heat treatment conditions, and between 1.29 and 2.2 during fretting wear against EB-PBF Ti-6Al-4V itself. The corresponding average specific wear rates show a broad range between ~8.20 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/Nm and ~1.30 × 10⁻³ mm³/Nm during sliding wear. Lubrication reduces the wear rates and/or the friction coefficient. Wear resistance can be improved via machining and heat treatment. Wear anisotropy is reported and primarily attributed to microhardness variations, which can be mitigated through lubrication and post-processing. The effects of applied load and frequency on EB-PBF Ti-6Al-4V are also discussed. The wear resistance at elevated temperatures shows a mixed trend that depends on the counterpart material and the testing methods. Wear mechanisms involve oxide tribo-layer formation, abrasive wear, and adhesive wear. Current limitations, future research directions, and a standardization framework are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Materials: Experiments and Modelling)

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14 pages, 3293 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Surface Stability and Behavior of Diamalloy 2002 Hard Coatings Under High-Temperature Conditions

by Yildiz Yarali Ozbek, Okan Odabas, Gulfem Binal, Yasin Ozgurluk and Abdullah Cahit Karaoglanli

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1169; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111169 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

The high-temperature and hot corrosion behavior of Diamalloy 2002 coatings with a WC/Co–NiCrFeBSiC composite structure applied to a 316 L stainless steel surface using the atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) method was investigated. The coatings were held at 900 °C in air for 5, [...] Read more.

The high-temperature and hot corrosion behavior of Diamalloy 2002 coatings with a WC/Co–NiCrFeBSiC composite structure applied to a 316 L stainless steel surface using the atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) method was investigated. The coatings were held at 900 °C in air for 5, 25, 50, and 100 h and in a molten salt bath of Na₂SO₄ + V₂O₅ at 900 °C for 1, 3, and 5 h. SEM, EDS, and XRD analyses revealed that the oxide layer on the surface thickened with increasing temperature and corrosion duration, forming NiO, Cr₂O₃, and mixed metal oxides. These oxide phases created a protective barrier effect by limiting diffusion between the coating and the substrate. Despite a slight increase in porosity and minor WC dissolution under long-term oxidation conditions, the coatings maintained their structural integrity up to 900 °C, demonstrating significant resistance to high-temperature oxidation and molten salt corrosion. These results demonstrate that Diamalloy 2002 coatings provide an effective surface protection solution in abrasive and oxidizing high-temperature environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy, Surface Engineering and Corrosion of Metals and Alloys)

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18 pages, 9023 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Austempering Time and Temperature on the Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of a Niobium-Alloyed Austempered Ductile Iron

by César Yeshua Becerra Mayorga, Marissa Vargas Ramírez, Edgar Cardoso Legorreta, Jesús García Serrano, José Merced Martínez Vázquez, Erick Uriel Morales Cruz and Cynthia Aristeo Domínguez

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1168; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111168 - 23 Oct 2025

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Abstract

This study evaluated the influence of niobium addition and austempering time and temperature on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of ductile iron. Three alloys were produced: unalloyed ductile iron (H1) and two Nb-alloyed ductile iron (H2, 0.11 wt.% Nb and H3, 0.32 wt.% [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the influence of niobium addition and austempering time and temperature on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of ductile iron. Three alloys were produced: unalloyed ductile iron (H1) and two Nb-alloyed ductile iron (H2, 0.11 wt.% Nb and H3, 0.32 wt.% Nb). After austenitizing at 900 °C for 60 min, samples were austempered at 250 °C and 300 °C for 15, 30, 60, and 90 min. The as-cast microstructure of H3 exhibited a higher pearlite fraction (73.31 vol%) and increased carbide content (2.48 vol%), accompanied by reduced nodularity and nodule count. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that the highest fraction of carbon-rich retained austenite was obtained in H3 after 30 min at 300 °C, reaching 42.48%. Hardness decreased with increasing retained austenite, confirming the inverse relationship between this phase and matrix strengthening. Wear testing showed that H2 presented slightly lower volume loss due to carbide precipitation, with the lowest value recorded after 15 min at 300 °C (1.088 mm³). Tensile tests indicated that ultimate tensile strength and yield strength were superior at 250 °C, with H3 achieving the highest values at 90 min (1353 and 1090 MPa, respectively). Overall, niobium promoted carbide formation and austenite stabilization, modifying the balance between hardness, toughness, and wear resistance in austempered ductile iron. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)

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21 pages, 6101 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Mechanism of Microstructure Refinement and the Synergistic Strength–Ductility Enhancement in Al–Zn–Mg–Cu Alloys Processed by Continuous Rheo-Extrusion

by Ziren Wang, Jiazhi An, Mei Xu, Haixia Zhang, Guoli Wei, Chengliang Yang, Zhenpeng Wei, Wenzheng Shen and Wanwu Ding

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1167; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111167 - 23 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys are well known for their outstanding strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance, arising from the balanced addition of Mg, Zn, and Cu. However, conventional casting methods often lead to grain boundary segregation and the formation of coarse Fe-rich phases, which severely limit [...] Read more.

Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys are well known for their outstanding strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance, arising from the balanced addition of Mg, Zn, and Cu. However, conventional casting methods often lead to grain boundary segregation and the formation of coarse Fe-rich phases, which severely limit subsequent heat treatment and plastic processing. To overcome these drawbacks, this study systematically investigates the effects of the Continuous Rheo-Extrusion (CRE) process on the microstructure and mechanical performance of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys using XRD, EBSD, SEM, and TEM analyses. The CRE process refines the average grain size from 53.5 μm to 16.1 μm and raises the fraction of high-angle grain boundaries to 88.8%. Moreover, coarse Fe-rich phases are fragmented to below 5 μm, while the elemental distribution of Zn, Mg, and Cu becomes more homogeneous, effectively reducing grain boundary segregation. The Al₂Cu precipitates are refined from 106.3 nm to 11.7 nm, corresponding to an 88.9% size reduction. These microstructural optimizations yield a remarkable increase in tensile strength (from 204.7 ± 23.7 MPa to 338.0 ± 9.3 MPa) and elongation (from 11.4 ± 2.4% to 13.8 ± 1.3%). Quantitative analysis confirms that dislocation and precipitation strengthening are the dominant contributors to this improvement. Overall, the CRE process enhances microstructural uniformity through the synergistic effects of shear deformation, continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX), and dynamic precipitation, thereby providing a solid theoretical and practical foundation for short-process fabrication of high-strength, high-ductility Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys. Full article

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47 pages, 19449 KB

Open AccessReview

Laser Cladding Remanufacturing of Metallic Components in High-End Agricultural Machinery and Equipment: Material Design, Processing, and Properties

by Haifei Lu, Hailong Yan, Jiming Lv, Weiwei Deng, Yuchen Liang, Xiang Xu, Jie Cai, Kaiyu Luo and Jinzhong Lu

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111166 - 22 Oct 2025

Viewed by 231

Abstract

Harsh working environments and excessive usage frequency cause wear, fatigue, and corrosion failure in metallic components in high-end agricultural machinery and equipment. Overall replacements of valuable metallic components could result in high overhaul costs and material waste. Therefore, remanufacturing these local areas is [...] Read more.

Harsh working environments and excessive usage frequency cause wear, fatigue, and corrosion failure in metallic components in high-end agricultural machinery and equipment. Overall replacements of valuable metallic components could result in high overhaul costs and material waste. Therefore, remanufacturing these local areas is an effective way to put damaged components back into service, thus maximizing the value of the remaining materials. Laser cladding (LC) technology utilizes high-energy, high-density laser beams to create cladding layers with specialized properties such as wear and corrosion resistance on the surfaces of damaged metallic components. This work provides a comprehensive analysis of pre-processing, processing, and post-processing in relation to laser cladding remanufacturing (LCR) of metallic components. The review examines the LC process, including material systems (Fe-, Ni-, and Co-based alloys and composites), process optimization, and path planning. The relationship between material composition, process parameters, microstructure evolution, and resultant properties (wear, corrosion, and fatigue) is emphasized. Finally, challenges and future trends faced in this process are introduced in detail. The discussed topics provide some important insights on high-quality and efficient remanufacturing of metallic components in high-end agricultural machinery and equipment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Assisted Additive Manufacturing of Metals)

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18 pages, 8588 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cross- or Unidirectional Rolling on the Microstructure, Corrosion Rate, and Hemolysis of Ternary Magnesium–Zinc–Gallium Alloys

by Anabel Azucena Hernández-Cortés, José C. Escobedo-Bocardo, José Manuel Almanza-Robles and Dora Alicia Cortés-Hernández

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1165; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111165 - 22 Oct 2025

Viewed by 143

Abstract

The effect of cross- or unidirectional rolling on the microstructure, corrosion rate, texture, and hemolysis of the Mg-0.5Zn-0.25Ga and Mg-1.5Zn-0.375Ga alloys was evaluated. After both rolling processes, the microstructure of the as-cast alloys was considerably refined due to the recrystallization process, obtaining higher [...] Read more.

The effect of cross- or unidirectional rolling on the microstructure, corrosion rate, texture, and hemolysis of the Mg-0.5Zn-0.25Ga and Mg-1.5Zn-0.375Ga alloys was evaluated. After both rolling processes, the microstructure of the as-cast alloys was considerably refined due to the recrystallization process, obtaining higher grain refinement after cross-rolling. The Mg-1.5Zn-0.375Ga alloy showed a finer microstructure than the Mg-0.5Zn-0.25Mg alloy due to the effect of both the severe plastic deformation obtained after cross-rolling and the higher amount of alloying elements, which act as grain refiners. After unidirectional rolling, the texture intensity of the basal plane increases, while the cross-rolled alloys show lower texture intensity due to the activation of the pyramidal and/or prismatic slip systems. The cross-rolled alloys showed a higher corrosion rate than the unidirectionally rolled alloys due to the basal texture developed. The Mg-1.5Zn-0.375Ga alloy showed a higher corrosion rate than the Mg-0.5Zn-0.25Ga alloy since the voids formed during heat treating were not fully eliminated during rolling. The Mg-0.5Zn-0.25Ga alloy after unidirectional rolling was not hemolytic (4.7%) and showed the lowest corrosion rate (0.8 mm/y). Thus, this alloy may be an excellent candidate for use in the fabrication of biodegradable implants. Full article

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12 pages, 1720 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction of NiSe₂/WO₃@SiMPs Heterojunction with Enhanced Photoelectrochemical Performance

by Li Zhang, Jie Li, Jialu Liu, Zhuo Zhong, Yangyang Chen, Peng Yang and Hui Wang

Metals 2025, 15(11), 1164; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15111164 - 22 Oct 2025

Viewed by 127

Abstract

Monocrystalline silicon, despite its widespread use as a photoelectrode material, is hindered by inherent drawbacks, such as high surface reflectivity, vulnerability to oxide passivation, and instability in aqueous electrolytes. To address these, a micropyramidal texture is fabricated on the silicon surface via wet [...] Read more.

Monocrystalline silicon, despite its widespread use as a photoelectrode material, is hindered by inherent drawbacks, such as high surface reflectivity, vulnerability to oxide passivation, and instability in aqueous electrolytes. To address these, a micropyramidal texture is fabricated on the silicon surface via wet chemical etching. A heterojunction photoanode was constructed by sequentially depositing NiSe₂ and WO₃ onto the textured silicon using chemical bath deposition, forming NiSe₂/WO₃@SiMPs. The photoanode demonstrates optimal photoelectrochemical performance at a NiSe₂ to WO₃ mass ratio of 9:1. Under simulated solar illumination (AM 1.5 G, 100 mW cm⁻²), it achieves a photocurrent of 5.62 mA cm⁻² at 1.23 V (vs. RHE), and a maximum photocurrent of 13.6 mA cm⁻² at 2.0 V (vs. RHE), markedly outperforming the individual components NiSe₂@SiMPs (8.23 mA cm⁻²) and WO₃@SiMPs (0.95 mA cm⁻²) at 2.0 V (vs. RHE). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results show a markedly lower charge transfer resistance (Rct) for the NiSe₂/WO₃@SiMPs (8.16 Ω) compared to the single-phase counterparts NiSe₂@SiMPs (121.48 Ω) and WO₃@SiMPs (902.23 Ω), indicating more efficient charge separation. In addition, the photocurrent remains steady for about 10 h without significant degradation. This work presents a promising strategy for improving the photoelectrochemical water splitting efficiency of silicon-based photoelectrodes through rational heterostructure engineering. Full article

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Metals, Volume 15, Issue 11 (November 2025) – 26 articles

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