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Article

Study of the Surface Structural Transformation and Mechanical Properties of 65Mn Steel Modified by Pulsed Detonation–Plasma Technology

by
Youxing He
1,
Mingming Zhang
2,†,
Xuebing Yang
1,
Wenfu Chen
1 and
Lei Lu
1,*
1
Institute of Applied Physics, Jiangxi Academy of Science, Nanchang 330096, China
2
School of Aeronautical Manufacturing Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Current address: Shanghai Aircraft Manufacturing Company, Ltd., Shanghai 330063, China.
Metals 2025, 15(5), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15050473
Submission received: 10 March 2025 / Revised: 27 March 2025 / Accepted: 18 April 2025 / Published: 22 April 2025
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Abstract

:
Pulsed detonation–plasma technology (PDT) is a surface-modification technology used in an atmospheric environment, where plasma, a detonation impact and thermal conditions are combined and have an effect on the material’s surface. In this study, annealed 65Mn steel was selected to further study the principle of PDT modification. The results show that the modified layer with fine grains was divided into an infiltration layer with a large amount of non-uniformly distributed granular CW3 carbides and a heat-affected layer below the infiltration layer after PDT treatment. However, a higher amount of acicular martensite and a lower amount of austenite was achieved in the modified layer, containing a large number of small-angle grain boundaries, dislocations, and twin grains. After the PDT treatment, the hardness of the modified layer, heat-affected layer, and substrate was 980 HV, 856.2 HV, and 250 HV, respectively. The mass loss of the sample before and after PDT treatment was 21.1 mg and 12.4 mg, respectively. The hardness and wear resistance of the modified layer were greatly improved compared with the substrate because of the combined effect of the solid-phase transformation, element infiltration, and distortion.

1. Introduction

As one kind of high-manganese-containing spring steels, 65Mn steel exhibits a high strength, good elasticity, and wear resistance, and is widely used in the manufacture of springs, tools, mechanical parts, and so on [1,2]. However, the natural wear and friction-related wear in service processes will result in a shorter lifespan and higher economic cost. The current drag and loss-reduction techniques are mainly implemented using structural optimization, plus physical field and surface-modification technique, while the insufficient wear resistance and crack and fracture risk of quenched and tempered 65Mn steel cannot meet the demand [3]. Furthermore, the abrasion wear mode of metal materials is one of the most common failure modes, and the economic loss due to frictional wear accounts for about 5% of the gross domestic product (GDP) every year. Hence, enhancement of the wear resistance of metal materials is currently an important topic of research and a surface treatment process is an effective way to enhance the wear resistance of materials [4].
For surface-treatment technologies including coating technologies and surface-modification technologies, the properties of the material surface will change, but not the internal composition, morphology, and properties of the material [5,6,7,8,9,10]. Several studies on the surface strengthening of 65Mn steel have been reported. A highly hardened coating formed on wear-resistant steel by surface treatments such as the deposition of cemented carbide, surface quenching, spray welding, etc., can increase the surface hardness and anti-wear properties and reduce the erosion of wear particles [11,12,13]. By rapid heating and cooling, ultra-fine nanometer-level acicular martensite is formed on the surface of 65Mn steel after laser quenching with increased hardness and wear properties. The hardness and wear resistance of 65 Mn steel is improved by the (Cr, Fe)7C3 carbide phase in iron-based gradient coatings prepared by laser cladding [14]. Furthermore, researchers have reported that a deposited high-chromium-containing layer [15], diamond-enhanced coating [16], nano-La2O3 WC-12Co-doped laser-cladding coating [2], and plasma nitride treatment [17] can effectively prolong the service time of components and reduce the operating cost.
The above research mainly focused on the preparation of a coating with a high degree of hardness by physical means on the surface of the substrate to improve the wear performance, which is limited by the adhesive force, pores, and micro-cracks produced during the treatment process. Due to the excellent strengthening effect and broad application prospect of high-energy surface-modification technology, pulsed detonation–plasma technology (PDT) combing detonation technology with plasma technology has been paid more and more attention by researchers in the surface research field in various countries [18,19]. The technology is utilized in an atmospheric environment, with a high energy density of up to 107 w/cm2, a high treatment efficiency, no-waste liquid-waste gas generation, and green environmental protection, its application prospects are very broad [20]. The PDT treatment has been carried out on H13, M2, W18Cr4V, and titanium alloys [21,22,23], and it was found that the hardness and wear resistance of the materials were effectively improved after the PDT treatment. Previous studies have shown that the microstructure and mechanical properties after PDT treatment are affected by the substrate material compositions [24]. The impact strengthening has an obvious strengthening effect on quenching and tempering 65Mn steel, while studies on the effect of the diverse microstructure of 65Mn steel on surface structural transformation after PDT treatment has been less frequently reported [25]. Compared to previous research, in this paper, the PDT treatment was carried on an annealed structure of 65Mn steel. This paper provides a more detailed analysis of the modification effect on annealed structures, including the change in the surface grain size, phase and proportions, hardness, and wear resistance to further improve the research on the strengthening mechanism of PDT.

2. Experimental Method

2.1. Material and Sample Preparation

The annealed 65Mn steel (chemical composition in wt.%: C 0.62~0.70, Si 0.17~0.37, Mn 0.90~1.20, P 0.035, S ≤ 0.035, Cr 16.75, Ni 3.99, Cu 3.67, Nb 0.28, and Fe in balance) was prepared for PDT treatment and the shape and size of the sample are shown in Figure 1a. The 65Mn sample was treated by PDT equipment, as shown in Figure 1b. The electrode material is represented by W, the supply voltage was set at 5 kV, the capacitance size was 800 μF, the inductance was 17 μH, and the distance between the nozzle and the sample was set at 50 mm. The explosion gas was a mixture of C3H8/O2/air = 1:4:5, and the explosion frequency was 3 Hz.

2.2. Microstructure Characterization and Mechanical Properties Testing

Metallographic samples were prepared by inlaying, grinding, and polishing, and then etching in a solution of 4% nitric acid alcohol in sequence. The phase structure was analyzed using an X-ray diffractometer (XRD, D8ADVANCE-A25, Karlsruhe, Germany). Field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM, FEI Nova Nano SEM450, Waltham, MA, USA) was used to analyze the structure of the modified layer, and the composition of the modified layer was analyzed by the accompanying electron energy spectrometer (EDS). The microstructure of the surface layer of the modified layer was observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM, Talos F200X, Waltham, MA, USA) by the focused ion beam (FIB) technique. After grinding and electrolytic polishing of the sample, the structural properties of the modified layer were observed by electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD, Oxford Nordlys Max3, Oxford, UK).
The HX-1000SPTA Micro Vickers hardness tester (HXD-1000TMQC/LCD, Shanghai, China) was used to measure the hardness of the treated samples with the following parameters: load of 0.25 N, loading time of 10 s, and holding time of 10 s. The HT-1000 high-temperature friction and wear tester (MMW-1A, Jinan, China) was used to investigate changes in the wear resistance with the following test parameters: speed of 150 r/min, load of 200 N, time of 120 min, and friction radius of 10 mm, and a Si3N34 ball of 6 mm diameter was used as the friction substrate. The mass change in the sample was measured before and after the friction test was performed, the volume wear was measured by the abrasion gauge, and the mass wear of the sample before and after the treatment was compared with the volume wear, so as to compare the change in friction performance. The electronic balance used was model AUY220 with an accuracy of ±0.1 mg.

3. Results and Discussion

The change in the surface phase of the sample after PDT treatment was observed in XRD patterns compared with the untreated samples, as shown in Figure 2. The surface of the untreated sample was mainly composed of the α-Fe phase, while the CW3 phase and various Fe–carbon phases were formed on the surface of the sample after PDT treatment. The W plasma vapor was formed around the W electrode rods because of the compound energy of the explosion and oscillating current caused by the LC oscillating circuit discharge process during PDT treatment [21,24]. Under the action of explosive shock waves, the W plasma vapor is rapidly impacted and deposited on the sample surface, inducing a plasma immersion effect [26]. Since tungsten (W) easily combines with carbon, it forms the CW3 phase on the surface. The sample surface temperature can rise sharply to the austenitic transformation temperature caused by PDT treatment, which could result in austenitic transformation, with carbide dissolution into austenite. Finally, martensite and the CFe15.1 residual austenite phase would coexist during the subsequent rapid cooling process [27,28,29].
The surface morphology and composition of the PDT-treated and untreated samples is displayed in Figure 3. The difference in the shapes of the samples are obvious; the sample was sandpapered before treatment, and there were many scratches on the surface. However, After the PDT treatment, the surface scratches disappeared, replaced by many ripple areas and small particles of uneven size and distribution. The EDS scanning results showed a high content of W and C elements in small particles; it was assumed that the small particles were the CW3 phase. Due to a large amount of heat generated during PDT treatment, the surface temperature exceeds the melting point of the material; thus, the surface of the sample will become molten. The molten surface will undergo corrugation deformation under the blast impact and solidify at higher cooling rates, resulting in corrugated regions. The plasma beam formed by the electrode evaporation sputtered on the surface under the influence of the explosion shock wave. However, the W plasma would gather together and cling to the sample surface to form a granular CW3 phase because of the uniform sputtering process.
The cross-sectional morphology and composition of the sample after PDT treatment is highly stratified, as shown in Figure 4. A modified layer (Figure 4a) with a slightly undulating surface and relatively uniform thickness was formed on the matrix after PDT treatment, and the thickness of the layer was about 17.1 μm. The matrix of the sample consists of lamellar pearlite and ferrite, while the modified layer is composed of a lava-like infiltration layer (IL) and heat-affected layer (HAL). Some needle-like superfine-crystal martensite, residual austenite, and small amount of ferrite are observed in the heat-affected layer. There are a few holes in the infiltration layer, which is different from the dense morphology of the heat-affected layer. The EDS point scans at position 1 and position 2 in Figure 4b show very high W contents of 13.34 wt.% and 9.78 wt.%, respectively. A large number of granular carbides of an uneven size and distribution is found in the infiltrated layer (Figure 4d), and the granular material is considered to be the CW3 phase in combination with the XRD analysis results. The EDS line scan (Figure 5) was performed along the arrow direction in Figure 4b, and tungsten was found to be mainly distributed in the depth range of 0–2.5 μm in the infiltration layer. Figure 4c shows that although there is a clear difference between the modified layer structure and the matrix structure, there is no obvious interface between the two parts; the modified layer is densely bonded to the matrix.
The temperature of both the infiltration layer and heat-affected layer rapidly increases and exceeds the austenite transformation temperature of 65Mn steel caused by PDT process. Moreover, the re-melting phenomenon would occur in the infiltration layer. Subsequently, the temperature of the infiltration layer decreases rapidly and austenite rich with carbon transforms into martensite [30]. Due to the high infiltration layer temperature, slow cooling rate, and a large amount of W elements, the microstructure of the infiltration layer is mainly dominated by residual austenite with the presence of a small amount of martensite [31,32]. Ion penetration by the W plasma beam is more likely to occur in the molten infiltration layer, which is difficult in the un-melted modified layer part; thus, the content of W elements in the infiltration layer is relatively high. Infiltration layer solidification will produce a small number of pores because of air getting into the molten state of the infiltration layer along with blast wave impacting the surface.
The phase distribution of the matrix and modified layer was analyzed by EBSD and the results are displayed in Figure 6. It was found that both the matrix and the modified layer are mainly composed of the BCC structure with only a small amount of the FCC structure, which is consistent with the XRD results. The BCC structure in the matrix occupies 98.3%, while the FCC matrix occupies only 0.0066%, and the rest is the unresolved part; the BCC structure in the modified layer occupies 58.2%, the FCC structure occupies 0.063%, and the rest is the unresolved part. For the annealed 65Mn steel, a lower amount of the FCC structure is formed in the infiltration layer compared with the quenched and tempered 65Mn steel after the same PDT process [25]. It was found that the modified layer underwent great strain, as shown in Figure 7. Since the PDT treatment is a combination of the pulsed blast and plasma beam, the surface of the sample is subjected to the blast impact effect and deformation. The high percentage of residual austenite in the modified layer is more prone to deformation, resulting in greater deformation and residual stress and lower EBSD resolution in the modified layer [33].
The results of the BC diagram analysis of the matrix and modified layer of the sample is displayed in Figure 8. The matrix structure is mainly a lamellar pearlite structure, while the modified layer structure is composed of a large amount of acicular martensite and a small amount of clumped ferrite. The modified layer grains have obvious refinement compared with the pearlite clusters and are superfine grains. Figure 9 shows the distribution of the grain boundary angles. Both the matrix and the modified layer are mainly composed of small-angle grain boundaries, which have a pegging effect on dislocations and impede dislocation movement. A small amount of the 60° twin boundary appeared in the treated sample, and more small-angle grain boundaries with angles of <5° were formed because of the blast impact caused by the PDT treatment. It was found that there was no obvious concentration of orientation in the IPF diagrams of the samples before and after treatment, so the orientation situation has less effect on the properties of the treated samples, as shown in Figure 10.
The TEM sample with a depth of 4 μm was cut from the surface (Figure 4b) of the sample after treatment by the FIB technique, and the microstructure was analyzed using TEM, as shown in Figure 11. A large number of dislocations are observed in the whole FIB sample, and dislocations can significantly increase the hardness of the material [34,35]. The high-resolution image shows serious lattice distortions in the modified layers, with the highest degree of distortion in the most-infiltrated layer. The presence of distortions is also responsible for the large number of unresolved regions in the EBSD analysis. The twin (Figure 11c) is corresponding to the twin with a grain boundary angle of about 60° in the EBSD results. It was found that the FCC structure at position c was marked by the residual austenitic phase, while the BCC structure at positions d and e was the martensitic phase from the diffraction patterns at positions d, e, and f in Figure 11b,c. During the PDT treatment, the surface is impacted by the explosion with the plasma beam and the modified layer undergoes strain, thus generating a large number of dislocations. The surface temperature of the sample would rise to the austenitic phase region and austenitic transformation occurs, caused by the PDT treatment. The most superficial layer can be cooled by the cooling system with a faster cooling rate, but the high content of the W element of the most superficial layer, which reached 13.34 wt.%, will reduce the martensitic transformation temperature, the martensitic transformation rate will be reduced, and the residual austenite content will be higher.
The morphology of samples after the wear test for 2 h under a load of 200 N is displayed in Figure 12. The images show a well-defined distribution of the long trajectory, and the small breakages at the edges of the tracks are observed in two samples. Oxidation wear revealed by the EDS results was observed in the untreated and PDT samples, respectively. The wear track was smooth and reduced from about 2 mm to 1.65 mm in width after the PDT treatment. After the PDT treatment, the degree of wear on the specimen’s surface was less severe, the width of the wear scars was significantly smaller with slight furrows appearing on the surface, and adhesion marks were locally confined. The abrasive wear was identified by typical furrows in the wear track for the PDT sample. The hard particles formed in the wear track because of the sliding interaction between the two friction surfaces during the sliding process, resulting in three-body wear [3].
Figure 13a shows the hardness of the IL, HAL, and substrate of the sample after the PDT treatment. After the PDT treatment, the hardness of the modified layer was greatly increased, the hardness of the infiltrated layer was about 980 HV, and the hardness of the heat-affected layer was 856.2 HV. Meanwhile, the hardness of the substrate was only 250 HV. A higher degree of hardness was achieved in the infiltrated layer, which was about 3.9 times the hardness of the substrate. However, a higher degree of hardness of the modified layer and approximated strengthening effect can be still achieved compared with quenched and tempered 65Mn steel after PDT treatment [25]. The friction wear test results of the PDT-treated samples and the untreated samples are shown in Figure 13b. The mass loss of the untreated sample was 21.1 mg, while the mass loss of the PDT-treated sample was 12.4 mg, and the friction performance was improved by 41.2%.
After the PDT treatment, a modified layer was formed on the top of the sample, and the modified layer structure underwent solid-state phase transformation from lamellar pearlite with ferrite to ultrafine crystalline needle-like martensite, residual austenite, and a small amount of ferrite [36,37,38,39]. The dislocation strengthening effect induced by distortion, generating large internal stresses with a large number of dislocations, would improve the hardness of modified layer [40]. Furthermore, the mainly small-angle grain boundary of the modified layer structure has a pegging effect on dislocations and can promote the effect of dislocation strengthening [41]. Under the combined effect of phase transformation, internal stress, and dislocation, the hardness and wear resistance of the modified layer are substantially increased. Compared with the heat-affected layer, the degree of distortion is greater in the infiltrated layer, and a large number of granular W3C phases with carbide phases are formed, which benefit the hardness of the material [42,43]. Thus, the infiltrated-layer hardness is higher than that of the heat-affected layer, which is distinct compared with the results of a previous study [25]. The microstructure of the substrate has significant effect on the PTD process. To sum up, the hardness and wear resistance of the material are substantially increased after the PDT treatment.

4. Conclusions

In this study, the surface of annealed M65 steel was modified by PDT treatment. The major conclusions drawn from the present study are listed below:
  • PDT treatment will induce rapid solid-phase transformation and cause a modified layer to form on the surface of materials. The modified layer microstructures change from a lamellar pearlite and ferrite structure to martensite, tiny amounts of austenite, and a ferrite structure, containing a large number of small-angle grain boundaries.
  • The modified layer is divided into the infiltration layer and heat-affected layer. A new W3C phase is produced because of the re-melting of the infiltrating layer, while almost no infiltration of W is detected in the heat-affected layer. Due to the effect of the explosion impact, serious distortion exists in the modified layer and a large number of dislocations and twin crystals are formed.
  • After the PDT treatment, the hardness of the modified layer, heat-affected layer, and substrate is 980 HV, 856.2 HV, and 250 HV, respectively. The mass loss of the sample before and after the PDT treatment is 21.1 mg and 12.4 mg, respectively. The microstructure of the substrate has a significant effect on the PTD process. The hardness and wear resistance of the modified layer are greatly improved compared with the substrate because of the combined effect of the solid-phase transformation, element infiltration, and distortion.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.L.; methodology, L.L.; validation, M.Z.; investigation, W.C.; data curation, X.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.H. and M.Z.; writing—review and editing, Y.H. and L.L.; supervision, L.L.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51961015); Jiangxi Provincial Research Institutes Basic Research and Talent Special Project—Institutes Introducing Doctoral Projects (2024YYB20), and Key Research and Development Program of Jiangxi Academy of Sciences (2023YSBG10002).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Mingming Zhang was employed by the Shanghai Aircraft Manufacturing Company, Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of (a) the shape and size of sample and (b) PDT treatment.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of (a) the shape and size of sample and (b) PDT treatment.
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Figure 2. XRD pattern of untreated and PDT-treated sample.
Figure 2. XRD pattern of untreated and PDT-treated sample.
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Figure 3. The surface morphology and enlarged images of (a,b) untreated sample and (c,d) PDT-treated sample; the CW3 phase is marked by arrow.
Figure 3. The surface morphology and enlarged images of (a,b) untreated sample and (c,d) PDT-treated sample; the CW3 phase is marked by arrow.
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Figure 4. (a) Cross-sectional morphology of PDT-treated sample; (b–d) enlarged image of positions b, c and d in Figure (a).
Figure 4. (a) Cross-sectional morphology of PDT-treated sample; (b–d) enlarged image of positions b, c and d in Figure (a).
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Figure 5. EDS line scanning results along arrows in Figure 4b.
Figure 5. EDS line scanning results along arrows in Figure 4b.
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Figure 6. Phase distribution of samples before and after treatment: (a) untreated sample; (b) treated sample.
Figure 6. Phase distribution of samples before and after treatment: (a) untreated sample; (b) treated sample.
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Figure 7. Strain distribution of samples before and after treatment: (a) untreated sample; (b) treated sample.
Figure 7. Strain distribution of samples before and after treatment: (a) untreated sample; (b) treated sample.
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Figure 8. BC diagram of samples before and after treatment: (a) untreated; (b) treated.
Figure 8. BC diagram of samples before and after treatment: (a) untreated; (b) treated.
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Figure 9. Grain boundary angle distribution of substrate and modified layer.
Figure 9. Grain boundary angle distribution of substrate and modified layer.
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Figure 10. Microstructure analysis of sample by IPF: (a) untreated sample; (b) treated sample.
Figure 10. Microstructure analysis of sample by IPF: (a) untreated sample; (b) treated sample.
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Figure 11. TEM analysis results: (a) cross-section morphology after PDT; (b,c) enlarged image of positions b and c in Figure (a); (d–f) enlarged image and corresponding SAED patterns of positions d, e and f.
Figure 11. TEM analysis results: (a) cross-section morphology after PDT; (b,c) enlarged image of positions b and c in Figure (a); (d–f) enlarged image and corresponding SAED patterns of positions d, e and f.
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Figure 12. SEM surface morphology after wear test: (a) untreated; (b) treated.
Figure 12. SEM surface morphology after wear test: (a) untreated; (b) treated.
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Figure 13. (a) Hardness of each part after PDT treatment and (b) frictional wear test results.
Figure 13. (a) Hardness of each part after PDT treatment and (b) frictional wear test results.
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MDPI and ACS Style

He, Y.; Zhang, M.; Yang, X.; Chen, W.; Lu, L. Study of the Surface Structural Transformation and Mechanical Properties of 65Mn Steel Modified by Pulsed Detonation–Plasma Technology. Metals 2025, 15, 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15050473

AMA Style

He Y, Zhang M, Yang X, Chen W, Lu L. Study of the Surface Structural Transformation and Mechanical Properties of 65Mn Steel Modified by Pulsed Detonation–Plasma Technology. Metals. 2025; 15(5):473. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15050473

Chicago/Turabian Style

He, Youxing, Mingming Zhang, Xuebing Yang, Wenfu Chen, and Lei Lu. 2025. "Study of the Surface Structural Transformation and Mechanical Properties of 65Mn Steel Modified by Pulsed Detonation–Plasma Technology" Metals 15, no. 5: 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15050473

APA Style

He, Y., Zhang, M., Yang, X., Chen, W., & Lu, L. (2025). Study of the Surface Structural Transformation and Mechanical Properties of 65Mn Steel Modified by Pulsed Detonation–Plasma Technology. Metals, 15(5), 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15050473

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