Moving toward Net Zero Carbon Buildings to Face Global Warming: A Narrative Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Increase in Carbon Emission and Reduction Pathways
3.1. The Era of Anthropocene
3.2. Carbon Emissions in the Construction Sector: Decarbonization Targets
4. NZCB Compared to Other Energy and Carbon Target Classifications
4.1. Definition of Energy and Carbon Reduction Classification for Buildings
4.2. Business as Usual (BaU)
4.3. Nearly Zero Energy Building (nZEB)
4.4. Zero Energy Building (ZEB)/Net Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB)
4.5. Net Zero Carbon Building (NZCB)
4.6. Beyond Carbon Neutrality
5. Drivers and Barriers to NZCB Adoption
5.1. Main Drivers
5.2. Main Barriers
5.2.1. Economic Barriers
5.2.2. Legislative Barriers
5.2.3. Technological Barriers
5.2.4. Professional Barriers
5.2.5. Socio-Cultural Barriers
5.2.6. Geographical Barriers
6. Net Zero Carbon Building Strategies
6.1. Embodied Carbon Reduction
6.2. Operational Carbon Reduction
6.3. Zero Carbon Energy Sources
6.4. Offset, Carbon Storage and Compensation
6.5. NZCB Case Studies
7. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ASHRAE | The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers |
AZCB | Absolute Zero Carbon Buildings |
BaU | Business as Usual |
BIM | Building Information Modeling |
BREEAM | Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology |
CCU | Carbon Capture Unit |
CED | Cumulative Energy Demand |
CNB | Carbon Negative Building |
CO2e | Carbon Dioxide Equivalent |
CO2VE | Carbon Value Engineering |
COP | Conference of Parties |
DGNB | Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen |
DT | Digital Twins |
EoL | End of Life |
EPBD | Energy Performance of Buildings Directive |
EPD | Environmental Product Declaration |
GHG | Greenhouse gases |
HVAC | Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning |
IEA | International Energy Agency |
IPCC | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |
LCA | Life-Cycle Analysis |
LCC | Life-Cycle Cost |
LCI | Life-Cycle Inventory |
LC-ZEB | Life-Cycle Zero Energy Buildings |
LEED | Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design |
LULUCF | Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry |
NBS | Nature-Based Solutions |
NDCs | Nationally Determined Contributions |
nZEB | Nearly Zero Energy Building |
NZCB | Net Zero Carbon Building |
NZEB | Net Zero Energy Building |
OECD | Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |
PV | Photovoltaics |
TQA | Total Quality Assessment |
UKGBC | UK Green Building Council |
UNFCCC | United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |
VE | Value Engineering |
WLCA | Whole-Life Carbon Assessment |
ZCB | Zero Carbon Buildings |
ZEB | Zero Energy Building |
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WLCA Methodology—EN 15978:2011 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A1 | Production | Raw material supply | Embodied | Cradle—to grave | |||
A2 | Transport | ||||||
A3 | Manufacturing | ||||||
A4 | Construction | Transport | Embodied | ||||
A5 | Construction and installation process | ||||||
B1 | In-use | Use | Embodied | Cradle to completion | Cradle to site | Cradle to gate | |
B2 | Maintenance | ||||||
B3 | Repair | ||||||
B4 | Replacement | ||||||
B5 | Refurbishment | ||||||
B6 | Operational energy | Operational | |||||
B7 | Operational water | ||||||
C1 | End of life | Deconstruction and demolition | Embodied | ||||
C2 | Transport | ||||||
C3 | Waste processing | ||||||
C4 | Disposal | ||||||
D | Beyond life | Benefits and loads | Embodied | ||||
Reuse, recovery, recycling |
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Tirelli, D.; Besana, D. Moving toward Net Zero Carbon Buildings to Face Global Warming: A Narrative Review. Buildings 2023, 13, 684. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030684
Tirelli D, Besana D. Moving toward Net Zero Carbon Buildings to Face Global Warming: A Narrative Review. Buildings. 2023; 13(3):684. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030684
Chicago/Turabian StyleTirelli, Davide, and Daniela Besana. 2023. "Moving toward Net Zero Carbon Buildings to Face Global Warming: A Narrative Review" Buildings 13, no. 3: 684. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030684