Against the backdrop of ongoing global urbanization, there is a growing demand for an enhanced quality of life. Rural public spaces emerge as pivotal elements in realizing this aspiration, providing rural communities with opportunities to connect with nature and serving as platforms for cultural preservation and social interaction [
1]. Additionally, globally implemented rural revitalization policies aim to enhance quality of life and promote sustainable development in rural areas, underscoring the crucial role of rural public spaces [
2]. However, a deeper understanding of the precise impact of these spaces on individual emotions and perceptions is imperative [
3].
In rural studies, the focus centers on residents’ well-being [
4]. The communal attributes inherent in rural settings foster more frequent interactions among residents compared with urban environments [
5]. Thus, scrutinizing the social spaces in rural areas holds significant importance for residents’ happiness [
6]. These communal spaces, often public gathering areas situated between residences and streets or in village squares and street intersections, warrant investigation into their ability to meet the daily and emotional needs of individuals [
7]. Such an inquiry can shed light on whether existing designs of rural public spaces align with people’s expectations for higher-quality spatial experiences, ultimately fulfilling their aspirations for an enhanced quality of life [
8].
In the current developmental stage in China, people’s demands for high-quality spaces are encapsulated in the satisfaction of feelings of happiness, security, and accomplishment [
9]. The measurement of these emotional responses can be facilitated through the application of sensory engineering techniques. Sensory engineering [
10] utilizes technologies such as electroencephalography (EEG) [
11], eye-tracking [
12], and electrocardiography (ECG) [
13] to measure physiological response data during spatial utilization. The analysis of these data allows for the quantification of individuals’ emotions in spatial contexts, providing a more scientific observation of their satisfaction with the space [
14].
EEG primarily measures brain electrical activity, providing direct insight into cerebral functions and emotional responses, and facilitating the study of higher cognitive processes and emotions [
15]. For example, Mintai Kim et al. used EEG technology to evaluate the safety and aesthetics of nighttime scenes. They found that differences in alpha and beta waves varied with the environment, indicating that EEG can serve as a measure for assessing nighttime scene characteristics. This provides new possibilities for improving the quality of nightscapes [
16]. Krzysztof et al. used portable EEG headbands to assess calm and alert states in informal green spaces (IGSs) and explore emotional well-being. The results indicated that there were no significant differences in the emotional state levels of users at rest in IGSs compared with green spaces (GSs) [
17]. However, EEG suffers from lower spatial resolution, making it difficult to pinpoint specific brain regions, and is susceptible to interference from scalp and hair artifacts. ECG measures cardiac electrical activity, offering insights into cardiac function and cardiovascular health, and is employed in the study of cardiovascular diseases and psychophysiology [
18]. Timo Lanki et al.’s research found that visiting urban green environments can lower blood pressure and heart rate, thereby alleviating psychological stress [
19]. Nadja and colleagues investigated the effects of short-term exposure to different urban green and street environments on physiological and psychological parameters related to cardiovascular health in elderly individuals. Their results indicated that visiting urban green spaces can promote cardiovascular health [
20]. Yet ECG solely provides information related to cardiac function and does not directly reflect cognitive and emotional states. Eye-tracking technology measures eye movements, fixation durations, and gaze points, providing insights into individual visual attention distributions and durations, and is utilized in the study of attention and visual search [
21]. Liu Wei et al. used eye-tracking experiments to analyze people’s visual perception of rural landscape elements. They found that the observation time of landscape elements depended on their proportion in the space, and subjective preferences were determined by the observation time of these elements [
22]. Marek et al., by analyzing fixation and saccade data of people observing peri-urban landscapes in different seasons and weather conditions, found that warmer seasons led to a broader visual range and shorter fixations [
23]. Overall, EEG is suitable for studying brain activity, eye-tracking for visual attention research, and ECG for investigating cardiac function.
This study focuses on the cognition and emotions of individuals within rural public spaces. Given that visual perception is the predominant mode of spatial observation and usage, paying attention to eye-tracking data in different rural public spaces allows for the observation of individuals’ cognitive processes. Consequently, the analysis discerns emotions in spatial contexts and provides a more precise examination of individuals’ spatial preferences. Considering that rural public space design primarily manifests in visual attention, this study utilizes eye-tracking technology to measure and evaluate people’s emotions and perceptions in these spaces. This approach aims to offer a scientific foundation for the human-centric planning and design of rural spaces.
1.1. Rural Public Space
Rural public spaces refer to open areas located in rural settings that are accessible to the public, aiming to promote community interaction, social cohesion, cultural heritage, and various social and cultural activities. These spaces may include rural squares, parks, markets, village squares, nature reserves, and other public facilities and locations. Rural public spaces play a pivotal role as an integral component of community life. They not only provide residents with places for leisure and socialization, but also symbolize cultural heritage and community cohesion. The design and planning of rural public spaces are of paramount importance in creating a pleasurable, fulfilling, and enriching living environment [
4].
In China, rural public space refers to the public activity venues within rural settlements that promote social events and activities. “Public” and “space” are its fundamental characteristics, where “space” represents its form, and “public” represents its nature. Rural public spaces contrast with private spaces, allowing members of society to enter freely or under certain conditions. They serve as foundations for various social connections and interpersonal interactions in rural communities, featuring attributes such as identification, recognition, gathering, belonging, communication, and satisfaction [
24].
In recent years, extensive urbanization has resulted in the substantial occupation of rural spaces [
25], leading to a significant reduction in public spaces within rural areas [
26]. This phenomenon has not only diminished existing rural public spaces, but also limited their functionality, making them inadequate to accommodate the diverse social activity requirements of residents [
27]. Furthermore, newly constructed public squares, parks, and other facilities are often located on the outskirts of villages, resulting in a significant reduction in the efficiency of public space utilization [
28]. In terms of rural architectural aesthetics, a significant homogenization phenomenon is prevalent [
29], resulting in a lack of cultural distinctiveness [
30]. Regarding road construction within villages, most roads lack differentiation between pedestrian and vehicular pathways, leading to mixed pedestrian and vehicular traffic situations [
31]. Concerning the development of green landscapes within villages, most villages, due to limited public space areas and insufficient planning, experience a scarcity of greenery after road construction, thus encountering challenges related to insufficient landscaping [
32]. In the context of cultural and artistic heritage preservation within villages, historical village planning has traditionally emphasized material and technical aspects while neglecting the historical and cultural memory of the village [
33]. Consequently, public spaces often suffer from a deficiency in cultural and artistic elements, including landscapes, sculptures, and furnishings, which could otherwise reflect unique rural characteristics [
34]. In terms of emotional identity, the development of rural public spaces, due to the pursuit of material development during the urbanization process, has often overlooked the exploration of rural characteristics and cultural heritage. This has resulted in a crisis of self-identification among villagers regarding their local culture [
35]. There exists a contradiction between the current provision of rural public spaces and the demands of residents for their public life. Moreover, existing rural public spaces are inadequate in fulfilling people’s aspirations for a better quality of life [
36].
Currently, research on rural public spaces primarily focuses on the transformation and evaluation of existing physical spaces. For instance, Ye et al., based on the theory of spatial production, presented the spatial production of rural culture in Tangwan Village, Shanghai, from three dimensions: ideological space, representational space, and daily life space. They also analyzed the reasons for the gradual decline in rural culture [
31]. They found that, under the pattern of spatial production dominated by power and capital, villages face challenges in maintaining rural cultures and developing new ones. The loss of culture leads to the decline of villages. Adequate daily living space is crucial for the prosperity of rural culture. Xu et al. used the Kano-IS model to assess the sustainability of rural residential environment improvement [
1]. The model identifies the priority of elements that need improvement or maintenance, thereby assisting managers in rural settlements to create sustainable living environments and enhance resident satisfaction. Lyu, using Xingjing Town in Xixia District, Yinchuan City, Ningxia, as an example, sought to understand the development of rural public spaces through villagers’ perceptions. Their research found that villagers’ demands for public spaces are often related to accessibility, pleasant landscapes, and a good environment. Villagers hope to have more public spaces in their town to enrich their lives [
27]. Li et al. explored the reconstruction of rural elderly public spaces from the perspective of community elderly care, analyzing the design of public elderly care activity spaces and facilities in villages from the perspectives of “convenience,” “cultural aspects,” and “safety” [
37]. Jiao et al. based their study on the aesthetic interaction concept, applying interaction design principles to architectural design. They investigated the feasibility of using a design approach focused on “beauty” and centered on “interaction” in rural public space design. They summarized a set of reasonable and effective design methods from three aspects: spatial function diversification, locality, and sensory guidance [
36]. Zhang et al. used Wuzhang Village in Chongren County, Jiangxi Province, as an example to study the integration design of rural public spaces and ancestral temple culture [
38]. They found that, during the process of social development, folk temples, as ceremonial buildings, were severely suppressed, resulting in the disappearance of many temples. Consequently, they proposed redesigning and revitalizing the space to preserve and revive folk temples. Shen et al. evaluated the landscape performance of rural micro-landscapes in highly urbanized areas and proposed that micro-landscapes should maximize their therapeutic effects on users during the design phase, allowing users to relax and unwind better through micro-landscapes [
39]. Soszyński et al. analyzed, summarized, and compared the public spaces of four villages in eastern Poland. They categorized rural public spaces into three types: places primarily for essential activities, places for social or recreational activities, and places mainly for entertainment. They introduced the uniqueness of rural public spaces and highlighted the importance of different types of public spaces for local communities [
8]. Thompson et al. indicated that more green spaces can alleviate stress, enhance health, and increase happiness among individuals [
40]. Roe et al. found that “green edges” composed of gardens and street trees along urban streets influence people’s health and well-being [
41]. They used EEG technology to understand the emotional changes people experience when observing natural and urban scenes. They found that natural landscapes are associated with higher levels of meditation and lower arousal (i.e., excitement), whereas urban scenes are associated with higher arousal [
42].
Through reviewing the existing literature on rural public spaces, we found that current research tends to focus on two main aspects: (1) the optimization and evaluation of various elements in rural public spaces, including architecture, landscapes, and environmental improvements, with a lack of comprehensive summarization and comparison of these elements; and (2) the insufficient quantitative studies investigating the relationship between residents’ demand for public activity spaces in rural areas and the existing rural public spaces. Therefore, research on rural public spaces should start from human needs, analyze people’s preferences for various elements within rural public spaces, and delve into the preferences of individuals under different forms of these elements.
1.2. Eye-Tracking Technology
Eye-tracking technology is a novel method used in cognitive research [
43] and has been applied across multiple academic disciplines [
44]. It records and detects the movement of the eyes in both time and space, aiding in the analysis of visual attention, perception of stimuli, and the interaction between the brain and the external environment [
13]. In the context of urban architectural design, eye-tracking technology is primarily used to analyze people’s preferences for landscapes in public spaces. The objective and scientific nature of eye-tracking metrics addresses the limitations of subjective evaluations in previous research. Researchers like Su have utilized eye-tracking technology to explore the visual behavioral information and significance behind rural public space landscapes [
45]. Zhou et al. employed eye-tracking metrics to analyze the influence of landscape elements in urban waterfront parks on visual behavior and public preferences [
46]. Macro et al. analyzed eye-tracking reactions to videos of people walking in parks to identify the natural features that capture the most attention when walking in a park [
14]. In the field of architectural heritage preservation, Li et al. used eye-tracking technology to study the visual behavioral characteristics of architectural heritage, finding that these characteristics were related to factors such as area, relative area, distance from the center, and perimeter [
12]. Current research predominantly applies eye-tracking technology to investigate specific aspects of urban architecture, lacking comprehensive comparative studies of overall elements in the human living environment.
This study focuses on all constituent elements of rural public spaces. Utilizing eye-tracking technology, physiological response data are measured to assess individuals’ reactions to various elements within rural public spaces. By comparing the cognitive and emotional responses to different elements, this study aims to identify the elements that significantly impact people’s perceptions and emotions in rural public spaces. The findings will provide guidance for human-centric rural design, addressing the current shortcomings in eye-tracking technology research.
1.3. Research Objective
In the realm of urban planning and design, Kevin Lynch’s theory of the five elements of urban intentions stands as a seminal work, providing profound insights into the significance and interplay of various elements within urban spaces. However, research on public spaces in rural areas is relatively scarce and lacks a systematic theoretical framework. Therefore, drawing upon prior studies on rural public spaces, this paper endeavors to comprehensively classify and deeply explore them. Building upon Kevin Lynch’s theory of the five elements of urban intentions (District, Edge, Path, Node, and Landmark) [
47] and integrating previous research on the classification of urban and rural public space, this study has refined, classified, and deepened the components of rural public spaces from an architectural standpoint. Ultimately, the constituent components of rural public spaces have been categorized into five types: architecture, streets, greenery, nodes, and landmarks.
Each component is further divided into three types based on their distinct characteristics and constituent elements. Architecture serves not only as the visual focal point of rural communities, but also as a carrier of cultural heritage. The regional expression of architectural style is an important manifestation of rural characteristics. Thus, architecture is bifurcated into two parts: main facade and side facade. The main facade encompasses two distinct facade styles: the facade of new buildings and the facade of old buildings. Streets function as pathways for people’s movement and as connectors between different spaces, leading to their categorization into main roads, side roads, and residential streets based on location and function. Greenery plays a crucial role in environmental enhancement, ecological balance, and fostering a healthy atmosphere; thus, it can be categorized into artificial landscapes, natural forests, and natural lakes. Nodes, acting as intersection points, facilitate connections between various parts of the community, fostering interaction and vitality; hence, they can be divided into rural gardens, intersection gathering spaces, and roadside gathering spaces. Meanwhile, landmarks serve as cultural symbols and conduits for information transmission, shaping the distinctiveness of rural areas, thereby being categorized into political center landmarks, historical and cultural landmarks, and main entrance landmarks.
The central focus of this study lies in analyzing how the five components of rural public spaces, along with their different constituent elements, influence individuals’ emotions and perceptions. Through a comprehensive exploration of this question, we aim to better understand the pivotal roles played by these elements in rural public spaces in creating satisfying environments. This research seeks to provide practical guidance to meet people’s demands for a high-quality and improved life while simultaneously fostering more attractive, inclusive, and sustainable rural spatial environments, aligning with the objectives of rural revitalization policies.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to comprehensively analyze people’s cognitive behaviors toward existing rural public spaces using subjective perceptual questionnaires and objective eye-tracking technologies. It involves a horizontal comparative analysis of the emotional impact of five components within rural public spaces: architecture, streets, greenery, nodes, and landmarks. Additionally, it encompasses comparing the three types within each component, longitudinally analyzing the impact of different constituent elements on individual emotions within each component. Furthermore, this research explores the relationship between different elements of the five components of rural public spaces and levels of attention and human emotions within the dimensions of perception and emotion. Ultimately, through a combined subjective and objective analysis approach, this study aims to provide strategies for emotional design in rural public spaces and offers valuable insights for future rural space planning and design.