Placement Principles of Islamic Calligraphy in Architecture: Insights from the Al-Hambra and Al-Azem Palaces

Abstract

This paper addresses a critical gap in the study of Islamic architecture by exploring the interconnected relationship between Arabic calligraphy and architectural design. Specifically, it examines the principles guiding the placement of Islamic calligraphy within the interior and exterior spaces of Islamic public buildings through a qualitative analysis of two notable case studies, the Al-Hambra Palace in Granada, Spain, and the Al-Azem Palace in Hama, Syria. This research elucidates fundamental principles that underpin the integration of calligraphy in Islamic architectural contexts. To enhance the robustness of the findings, interviews were conducted with three expert master calligraphers, providing skillful insights that enrich the understanding of calligraphy placement. This study reveals significant implications for the decoration of walls and ceilings in Islamic buildings. However, the findings are limited by the scope of the case studies and the subjective interpretations of the interviewed experts. This research contributes valuable knowledge to the field, informing contemporary architectural practices and the preservation of cultural heritage.

1. Introduction

Islamic architecture is a centuries-old category of architecture rooted in the principles of Islam. Islamic architecture is a combination of Greek and Byzantine architecture, and it refers to a style of architecture created as a physical manifestation of the principles of Islam by the Muslims in the 7th century [1,2,3,4]. The mosque is the most frequently associated building with Islamic architecture, and it is considered a prominent Muslim place of worship [5,6,7,8]. Nevertheless, Islamic architecture encompasses both secular and religious buildings, including large-scale mosques, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and public buildings, such as schools, to smaller-scale structures, including fountains, public baths, and domestic structures. Moreover, Islamic architecture can include buildings used by Muslims for religious purposes or secular buildings built in a predominately Islamic region. Thus, Islamic architecture, in relation to art and calligraphy, refers to the buildings that belong to Muslims and represent their identity and symbols [5,9,10].

2. Literature Review

Monumental art and Islamic calligraphy are two distinct forms of visual art that have been used for centuries to create works of great size and impact [11]. Monumental art refers to large-scale works of art, often created for public spaces, that are intended to make a grand statement. Examples of monumental art include sculptures, murals, monuments, and memorials [12]. These works are designed to be viewed by many people and often have an impact that extends beyond their aesthetic value to communicate ideas and shape cultural memory. Monumental art in architecture is a form of visual art that has played an important role in shaping the built environment and communicating cultural values for centuries. From ancient times to the present day, monumental art has been used to adorn buildings, commemorate important events and figures, and express cultural beliefs and values. Monuments in architecture serve a variety of functions, including place-making and creating symbolic locations and cultural relics [13].

Monumental calligraphy refers to the use of calligraphic writing in large-scale, public artworks and architectural structures. The practice of monumental calligraphy has a long and rich history that spans several thousand years and encompasses various cultures and civilizations [14]. Monumental calligraphy was a major form of artistic expression, with calligraphic inscriptions and decorations appearing in mosques, palaces, and other public buildings. The tradition of monumental calligraphy in Islamic architecture reached its peak during the Ottoman Empire, where it was used to decorate a wide range of structures, from grand palaces to simple homes [15].

Islamic Calligraphy is a wide-ranging art that represents various aspects such as style and scripts, design elements, and principles. Kalligraphía is the Greek word for Kallos “beauty” and Graphos “writing”, meaning beautiful writing, also known as calligraphy [16]. Calligraphy involves both the Arabic language and any other calligraphy that uses Arabic letters. Islamic calligraphy is defined as the artistic application of handwriting and Islamic content. The title Islamic was added to the word calligraphy due to the tremendous development of calligraphy by Muslims and the value that the Muslim religion gave to calligraphy in encrypting the holy book of Muslims. Even though Islamic calligraphy is a religious art of writing, it is not limited to strictly religious subjects, objects, or spaces [17,18]. Islamic calligraphy refers to Arabic calligraphy and the arts that generally belong to the Islamic world [19].

Islamic calligraphy has been employed throughout history, from architecture to coin design, because one should avoid portrayals of figurative painting. The use of calligraphy in monumental inscriptions manifested the most distinctive features of Islamic architecture. Islamic art gave crucial religious significance to applying calligraphy in architecture [8]. Islamic calligraphy is an attractive text that can contain the wisdom of the Qur’an or a Qur’anic verse accompanied by an initial imagination of the style of calligraphy with the realization of thought supported by features of linear composition that appear slowly to the spirit and then to the eye [20]. The Ottoman Empire, which ruled from the 14th to the 20th century CE, was the final Islamic empire to have a significant impact on the development of calligraphy. The development of Islamic calligraphy was influenced by the great Calipha of Islamic society.

The Umayyad Caliphate of Al-Andalus (929 CE–1031 CE) was the third state that constituted the Golden Age [21,22]. The early era of Islam was characterized by the development of the Kufic script, while the second era saw the development of the Nasakh and Thuluth scripts. The third era marked the development of the Nastalik script, while the fourth era was characterized by highly decorative and ornamental calligraphic works [23,24,25]. The fifth era continues to see the development of new styles and techniques while also drawing inspiration from the traditional calligraphic styles of the past [23,24]. There are six major Arabic calligraphy styles known today: Kufi, Thuluth, Nasakh, Nastalik, Diwani, and Ruqa’a. At the same time, other calligraphy styles were developed and added to the six significant styles, such as Diwani Jali calligraphy, representing a combination of two or three styles of calligraphy. Figure 1 shows the major styles and scripts.

The principles in design are important to ensure that the object achieves a coherent and attractive overall composition. Inconsistent interpretation of the principles of Islamic calligraphy placement results in a lack of coherence and harmony in the design of wall and ceiling decoration, as different designers may have different interpretations of traditional styles and principles [25]. The inconsistent use and misinterpretation of Islamic calligraphy in contemporary Islamic public buildings is a major concern for preserving the traditional cultural and aesthetic values of Islamic architecture [26]. This results in a lack of cultural representation and identity in modern Islamic architecture, compromising the cultural heritage and values of the Islamic community. The problem calls for a systematic investigation into the principles of Islamic calligraphy placement for their implementation in contemporary Islamic architecture to ensure the preservation and promotion of traditional Islamic art forms in modern architecture [27].

Although Islamic art and architecture broadly have received much attention over the years, there is not enough research about the placement of Islamic calligraphy in buildings’ wall and ceiling decoration. The research aims to present principles for the placement of Islamic calligraphy in buildings. This research uses a qualitative method by getting reliable data from calligraphers and experts and analyzing case studies. The case studies are documented and analyzed to achieve the study’s objectives. The researcher chose Al Hambra and Al Azem palaces as case studies due to their historical value, as well as the richness and beauty of Islamic calligraphy in their interior and exterior decoration.

This study seeks to answer the following research questions:

• What are the principles governing the placement of Islamic calligraphy in architectural design?
• How do these principles manifest in the interior and exterior spaces of historical palaces, specifically the Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces?

The objectives of this study are:

• To analyze the fundamental principles governing the placement of Islamic calligraphy in architectural design.
• To investigate how these principles are implemented and manifested in the interior and exterior spaces of historical palaces.

3. Methodology

Qualitative research delves into the subjective experiences, interpretations, and meanings held by individuals and communities [28]. This method is vital for understanding how Islamic calligraphy and architecture are perceived, interacted with, and interlaced into the cultural fabric of Muslim societies. By conducting interviews, observations, and document analysis, researchers can gain insights into the emotional, spiritual, and symbolic dimensions of these art forms. To achieve the research objective, which is to determine the Islamic calligraphy styles of scripts in interior and exterior Islamic architecture and its wall and ceiling decorations, two case studies of Al Hambra Palace and Al Azem Palace are chosen from different periods and styles based on different designs of architectural palaces.

The two chosen case studies for this study are Al-Hambra Palace, located in Granada, Spain, and Al-Azem Palace in Hama, Syria. Al Hambra and al Azem palaces are categorized as heritage palaces by UNESCO and other heritage organizations [18]. The Alhambra Palace was selected as an Umayyad palace due to its early representation of Islamic calligraphy. On the other hand, the Al-Azem Palace represents the Ottoman era. The selected buildings are rich with calligraphy as the main decoration element with various types, styles, framing, backgrounds, colors, and materials. Hence, the chosen palaces are decorated to host wealthy people, like sultans and kings. Having two case studies from different styles and eras helps to make a broad analytical study of calligraphy placement within variable dimensions to come up with more universal and reliable design principles. Both palaces were constructed with a high degree of decorative detail, especially the use of Islamic calligraphy, which is a distinctive feature of Islamic architecture and design. This demonstrates the exceptional talent of the designers, calligraphers, and architects of the Andalusian and Ottoman periods. The Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces, as two case studies, are one of the main methods for collecting primary data by determining the calligraphy placed on the interior and exterior spaces surrounding windows and doors and the calligraphy placed on walls, domes, and ceilings.

The researcher analyses the styles of scripts of Islamic calligraphy of selected parts of Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces in link with the components and elements to come up with the findings and discussions of categorizing the principles of Islamic calligraphy placement specifically. Next, a face-to-face interview consists of semi-structured interview questions constructed based on previous research and studies and from the findings and discussions of the case studies. Three master calligraphers who have experience using Islamic calligraphy in architectural decorations were chosen for the interview. This interview was to verify the principles of Islamic calligraphy placement. Figure 2 shows the methodology used.

4. Case Study

Case studies in academic research provide detailed insights into a particular phenomenon, program, or situation. One of the main types of case studies in research methodology is the exploratory case study, which can be set to explore any phenomenon in the data that serves as a point of interest to the researcher [29]. This study required verification of the analytical study and validation of the design principles. The researcher selected two specific palaces, namely Alhambra in Spain and Al-Azem in Syria. The Al-Hambra Palace was selected as an Umayyad palace due to its early representation of Islamic calligraphy. On the other hand, the Al-Azem Palace represents the Ottoman era. Al-Azem Palace in Hama, also built in the 18th century as a residence for the governor of Hama, showcases a traditional Ottoman architectural style that incorporates elements of Ottoman and Islamic architecture.

The selection of Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces as case studies is deliberate and strategic. These palaces, while distinct from each other in terms of construction, era, and materials, offer invaluable insights into the architectural components of historical palaces transformed into museums. Their cultural and historical significance cannot be overstated, as they serve as conduits for conveying rich cultural and political information to the public [30]. By extracting data from each palace, this research aims to deepen our understanding of historical buildings’ architectural elements, contributing to ongoing academic discourse in this field.

Both Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces exemplify the artistry of calligraphy in monumental architecture, showcasing the beauty and skill achievable through its integration into building design. The two well-known Al-Azem Palaces in Syria, located in Damascus and Hama, respectively, though sharing the same name, exhibit distinct differences in history, architecture, and decoration [31]. For instance, Al-Azem Palace in Hama boasts a traditional Ottoman architectural style infused with elements of Islamic architecture. Noteworthy for its intricate calligraphy and inscriptions, it stands as one of the finest exemplars of Islamic calligraphy [15]. Constructed in 1742 AD by Ottoman governor As’ad Pasha Al-Azem, the palace bears a distinct Muslim Ottoman identity and served the Al-Azem rulers of Hama until the nineteenth century [31]. Converted into an official museum in 1956, it underwent extensive restoration following damage incurred during the 1982 Hamah rebellion, culminating in a full renovation in 2002. On the other hand, Al-Hambra palace, dating back to 889 ADS in Granada, Andalusia, Spain, embodies Moorish and Andalusian architectural styles in its decoration. Erected by the Nasrids, who reigned over Andalusia at the time, Al-Hambra Palace represents a peak of Islamic architectural achievement. The selection of Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces as case studies in Figure 3 is based on several critical factors that make these two buildings chosen as a case study for this research of Islamic architectural design and decoration. Firstly, their designation as UNESCO World Heritage sites indicates their historical and cultural significance and importance, which makes them valuable subjects of study. Secondly, their geographical diversity, with Al-Hambra located in Spain and Al-Azem in Syria, provides a comparison of different cultural influences and styles. Thirdly, both palaces were constructed with a high degree of decorative detail, especially the use of Islamic calligraphy, which is a distinctive feature of Islamic architecture and design. This demonstrates the exceptional talent of the designers, calligraphers, and architects of the Andalusian and Ottoman periods. Fourthly, both buildings were constructed during the peak of their respective dynasties, offering a glimpse into the prosperity and cultural achievements of that time. Finally, both Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces served as public buildings and are well-known for their application of Islamic calligraphy, making them valuable case studies for exploring the role of calligraphy in Islamic architectural design.

5. Interviews

The selection of calligraphers for the interviews in this research was conducted with careful consideration to ensure the validity and depth of the obtained insights. While the number of calligraphers interviewed may appear limited, it is important to emphasize that the focus was on quality over quantity. Three calligraphers were chosen based on rigorous criteria to ensure a comprehensive and thorough understanding of calligraphy within the context of architectural design [15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30].

First and foremost, each calligrapher selected for the interviews possesses a strong background in both calligraphy and architecture. This dual expertise is essential for effectively addressing the research concerns, as it enables the calligraphers to discuss architectural terminology, design concepts, and the integration of calligraphy into architectural spaces with a high level of proficiency and insight [30,31].

Furthermore, the selected calligraphers are recognized and renowned within their field, indicating their successful background and expertise in calligraphy. This ensures that the insights provided during the interviews are informed by years of experience and mastery in the art of calligraphy, thus enhancing the credibility and reliability of the data gathered [31].

Additionally, the chosen calligraphers demonstrate versatility in their ability to write in a variety of handwriting styles, which fosters critical thinking and comparison abilities necessary for analyzing calligraphic elements within architectural contexts. Moreover, their academic teaching experience further strengthens their ability to articulate architectural features, qualities, and design concepts using academic techniques, thus enriching the depth and breadth of the discussions [15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31].

While the number of calligraphers interviewed may be small, the rigorous selection process ensures that each participant possesses a thorough awareness of the origins and development of calligraphy, as well as the ability to provide valuable insights into its integration within architectural design. By focusing on quality criteria in the selection of calligraphers, this research aims to ensure the reliability and validity of the data obtained through the interviews, thereby enhancing the overall robustness of the research findings. Figure 4 delineates the specific criteria utilized in selecting calligraphers for the research study.

Table 1. Demographics of Selected Calligraphers.

Name	Country of Origin	Age	Educational Background	Professional Affiliations	Years of Teaching Experience
Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq	Jordan	63	Degree in architecture	Calligrapher with work experience in architecture and construction, printing, and publishing	35 years
Muhammad Ghannoum	Syria	75	PhD in interior design	Calligrapher and lecturer at the Faculty of Architecture, Damascus University	50 years
Mohamed Adli Qabil	Egypt	58	Studied at the Academy of National Studies	Calligrapher and trainer for calligraphy courses in Libya	35 years

provides demographic information about the selected calligraphers, including their names, ages, educational backgrounds, professional affiliations, years of experience in calligraphy, and years of teaching experience. This information offers insight into the profiles of the calligraphers involved in the research, adding transparency and context to the selection process and enhancing the credibility of the findings.

The goal of interviewing master calligraphers is to confirm the fundamentals of calligraphy application in building decoration. To gather the necessary information by responding to multiple questions, the researcher opted for a face-to-face semi-structured interview. The chosen calligraphers’ mother tongue, Arabic, was used to write the replies initially. The responses are then compiled and translated into English. The style of Islamic calligraphy used in scripts is determined by conducting interviews with expert Islamic calligraphers. Additionally, it confirms the aesthetic qualities and principles of Islamic calligraphy placement that can be applied to the exterior and interior of Islamic buildings in order to preserve Islamic identities.

In addition to gathering textual data from experienced calligraphers, the researcher provides visual assistance to assist the calligraphers in responding to inquiries derived from the researcher’s analysis. The interview questions include a wide range of Islamic calligraphy topics, allowing the calligraphers to explain the style, the scripts, and their various ornamental designs and use in building from their points of view.

As a result, the researcher concentrates more on the calligraphy principles discovered throughout the case studies’ analytical evaluation. Based on their practical experience, master calligraphers provide an explanation of the calligraphy application rule of thumbs. Three key sections are used to summarize and explain the steps of interview research: data collecting, textual data analysis, and data evaluation. The semi-structured interview with the calligraphers is supported by open-ended questions, which are followed by their background in life and experience. The interview process is outlined in Figure 5.

Although the calligraphers are Arabs from various places, several varieties of Arabic are spoken throughout the interview. To facilitate textual data analysis, these various Arabic dialects are translated into formal Arabic before Arabic texts are translated into English. By correctly categorizing the textual data, it is structured into intelligible phrases. Because the participants are Arabs, the researcher translated the interview questions into Arabic to facilitate the procedure. There are many components of the interview questions that serve as the interview guide. There are multiple targeted questions in each segment. The purpose of the research questions is to confirm and validate the results of the building inspections of the selected structures. All these questions were straightforward and attached to the visual template, which helped the interviewees to provide their responses smoothly.

This study seeks to obtain detailed information about calligraphy from the three selected calligraphers: Muhamad Ghanoom from Syria, Mohamed Adli Qabil from Egypt, and Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq from Jordan. By conducting a face-to-face interview, the researcher has an opportunity to verify the data and gain a more significant amount of knowledge about calligraphy from the experienced master calligraphers who are well known for their calligraphy skillfulness.

6. Results and Discussion

Al-Hambra Palace and al-Azem Palace display a wealth of components with Islamic calligraphy, which are (1) the upper part of the wall, (2) decoration related to openings, and (3) the ceiling decoration panel group. The study covers all the calligraphy inscriptions placed on the walls, Ceilings (C), and domes of Al-Hambra Palace and al-Azem Palace. The study discovered a wide variety of calligraphy components in the decoration of Al-Azem Palace in Hamah, Syria, and Al-Hambra Palace in Cordoba, Spain. These components are divided into three categories. The first category is known as the upper part of the wall components, namely the Upper Cornice (UC), Lower Cornice (LC), Upper Wall frieze (UWF), Middle Wall frieze (MWF), lower Wall frieze (LWF), Chair rail (CR), Wall panel (WP), Fountain side (FS), Column capital (CC), Column architrave (CA), Column Frieze (CF), Beam side (BS).

The second category includes the decoration that is related to openings, which are namely the decorative panel above the door (DPD), the decorative panel above the window (DPW), the Door false arch (DFA), Corner block (CB), Keystone (k), Window false arch (WFA), Door casing (DC), Window casing (WC), Muqarnas wall (Mw), Muqarnas Honeycomb Arch (HA).

The last component of the decoration panels is the ceiling decoration panel group, which includes Ceiling (C), Squinches (dome ribs corner) 8(S), Pendentives (dome ribs corner), 4(P), Dome (D), and Muqarnas surrounding column (MC). According to the common classical terms of wall parts and traditional trim design in the “Elements of Interior Design and Decoration” book [32],

Table 2. The list of calligraphy components found in the two case studies.

Location	Calligraphy Component
The upper part of the wall	Upper Cornice (UC)
	Lower Cornice (LC)
	Upper Wall frieze (UWF)
	Middle Wall frieze (MWF)
	lower Wall frieze (LWF)
	Chair rail (CR)
	Wall panel (WP)
	Fountain side (FS)
	Column capital (CC)
	Column architrave (CA)
	Column Frieze (CF)
	Muqarnas surrounding column (MC)
	Beam side (BS)
Decoration related to openings	The decorative panel above the door (DPD)
	the decorative panel above the window (DPW)
	Door false arch (DFA)
	Corner block (CB)
	Keystone (k)
	Window false arch (WFA)
	Door casing (DC)
	Window casing (WC)
	Muqarnas wall (Mw)
	Muqarnas Honeycomb Arch (HA)
The ceiling decoration panel group	Ceiling (C)
	Squinches (dome ribs corner) 8(S)
	Pendentives (dome ribs corner) 4(P)
	Dome (D)

includes the wall components that might possibly be filled with calligraphy and decoration.

Twenty-seven components were identified from the visual analysis of Al-Hambra Palace and Al-Azem Palace. They were fitted to the three different types of architectural elements. Their placement shaped the composition and organization of the calligraphy components in the building decoration. In terms of their distribution pattern, the decorative components containing calligraphy were found in two principal forms: (1) a single rectangular component and (2) a continuous horizontal component.

6.1. Al-Hambra Palace in Spain

The walls of Al-Hambra are full of Arabic calligraphy in Nasakh and Kufic inscriptions that adorn the walls of this palace. It is full of unique symbolic, aesthetic, and intellectual dimensions through its inscriptions, motifs, and geometric designs created by the great artists of the Islamic State in Andalusia. Al-Hambra Palace is a very rich palace with decoration using words and letters; the richness of calligraphy as the main decoration on the walls’ components reflects the power of the Muslim Nasrid dynasty in the early times. This study includes the calligraphy components placed in Al-Hambra Palace in the Comares Palace, which includes two sections of the Alhambra Palace, specifically The Comares room, which is also called the Hall of the Throne, or the Ambassadors Hall and the Court of the Myrtles. The reason for choosing these sections is the rich calligraphy placement found in their decoration, which is the primary element of the palace decoration.

Table 3. The Comares Palace of Al-Hambra.

No	Spaces	Hall Name	Function	Photo
1.	Interior	The Comares room, the Hall of the Throne, or the Ambassadors Hall	This room is an enormous chamber that was utilized for essential gatherings.
2.	Exterior	Court of the Myrtles	The official residence of the king was used as a meeting place for ceremonial functions.

describes the selected halls in Al-Hambra Palace, which were chosen to analyze the calligraphy placement in the interior and exterior wall and ceiling decoration.

6.1.1. The Placement of Calligraphy in the Hall of the Throne

The Hall of the Throne, the Comares, or the Ambassadors, is an enormous chamber utilized for essential gatherings. In the hall where the Sultan’s throne is placed to obtain a sense of authority, sunlight pours through these wooden panels, creating a dramatic silhouette. The Upper Cornice (UC), located directly under the ceiling, has an Andalusian Nasakh style of the most sacred content category of Quran Verses. It is an Unframed calligraphy inscription of Surat al Mulk, glorifying the word of Allah in a strip along the four sides of the hall in white color, choosing this surah concerning the Ceiling’s symbolism of the seven skies. The poetry is placed to glorify the sultan in 11 poetries of Ibn Zamrak, which are symbolized in the palace’s halls in the Lower Cornice (LC).

The Muqarnas wall (MW) represented a clear divider that was lighter in color and plaster to create unity in the overall shape. Muqarnas wall (Mw) consists of a Flat panel at its lower part, which carries Zikir (ذكر) Glorifying Allah in a Repeated Horizontal placement on the Wooden Muqarnas. Next is the Upper Wall frieze (UWF), which is the beginning of the Plasterwork showing the Motto that there is no victorious but Allah on a bigger scale and a clear inscription covering all walls on a repeated horizontal arrangement, as shown in Figure 6.

The sentence in Figure 7 illustrates several inscribed calligraphy styles above the central arched entrance to the Hall of Ambassadors. In the calligraphy, (A) the sentence stated that Allah would support the human being inscribed in the Composite shape of one rectangle and two semicircles, including knotted foliated Kufic together with the Nasrid motto (no victorious but Allah) indicated under the (B (category.

The motto is applied in a linear arrangement in a repeated horizontal decorated circular frame of the Andalusian Nasakh. The upper part of the wall contains a high-raised floral composition of repeated leaves with a darker background surrounded by a semi-circular frame that separates the two different patterns. Therefore, the fantastic composition of interconnected arches in the Hall of Comares is an elaborate composition created from the calligraphy of Al-Mulku Li-Llahi, sovereign of God. Figure 8 shows the composition of the interlaced Kufic calligraphy in the Hall of Comares.

The following calligraphy is applied in a composition of vegetal and foliated Kufic mixture in a balanced repetition and unity in the usage of the decorative elements. The calligraphy is designed without a frame, and the repeated sentence written is (الشكر لله), which means thanks to Allah, along with the Decorative panel above the door (DPD) of the central arched entrance of the hall only. In the D calligraphy, the lower Wall frieze (LWF), a long sentence is written repeatedly along with the door arch casing horizontally and vertically. The sentence contains Duaa (دعاء) for the sultan of Muslims, Abu Abdullah.

The decorative panel on the chair rail (CR) wall contains a reminder, written in Kufic, to always thank Allah. It is framed with the composite shape of two semicircles and one rectangle. Figure 9 shows the calligraphy placement at the interior walls of Comares Hall.

The motto of Nasrid represents one of the inscriptions at the entrance of the Ambassadors’ Hall in Al-Hambra Palace, which shows the combination of geometric elements and plant securitization. The inscription is centered towards a circular vein leading to a pentagonal shape with “no winner but Allah”. At the same time, Islamic calligraphy is inscribed in an initiated way. The continuity of elements appears as one of the essential features of Islamic art in the use of inscriptions centered around an element to spin and return to the same composition.

The hall has three parallel sides with one slightly different wall where the entrance is located. Each wall has three small arched rooms, while the entrance wall has one bigger size arched doorway with a rectangular wooden door on both sides. The wall is divided into four parts, where the colored ceramic tiles take one-fourth. The tiles are colored in a variety of geometrical shapes in different sizes.

As can be seen in Figure 10, the calligraphy is richly inscribed horizontally and vertically and mirrored in perfect symmetry to be the part of the decoration. Islamic calligraphy is written using the floral decorative Kufic and Nasakh style calligraphy creating a perfect composition and harmony with the floral and geometric patterns.

6.1.2. The Placement of Calligraphy at the Court of the Myrtles

Al Rayaheen, or Court of the Myrtles, is a diplomatic meeting point. The inscriptions are for glorifying Sultan Muhammad the fifth in poetry. The name of this court is derived from the type of flowers planted along with the pool. As shown in Figure 11, the pool is like a big mirror reflecting Comoros palace with its seven arches in symmetrical size and perfect balance. The middle arch is the largest and highest, adorned with a mamluk style Muqarnas crown complemented with the poetry of Arabic calligraphy, which glorifies Allah, thanking Him, and glorifying the sultan. The uneven flooring towards the columns shows a connection to the column base as the building structure is floated over the water, reflecting the sacred feeling of the place and the symbolism of paradise.

The upper floor is designed with seven arches. It is dedicated to the palace women watching without being seen or noticed by anyone from the court. The rooms along the two sides have a door with small upper windows on the upper floor, which are the dorms of the palace residents of the Nasrid family. The wall behind contains the tree of life, which includes the sentence in the most intricate form of foliated, unfarmed, knotted Kufic. The sentence glorifying the sultan is in Andalusian Nasakh, a pointed arch frame.

There are paired columns on each side of the cornice’s Muqarnas, which translates to “Good Fortune,” and columns running the length of the structure that says, “Glory be to our Lord Abu Abdallah,” and form an inner stucco entrance, like the courtyard in two dimensions. Above this complicated architectural calligraphy is comprised of the Islamic phrase “success comes only from God the mighty and wise”, with which is written “thanks to Allah” and “Barakah (بركة)” written in Kufic script. As the undulating tiles provide mesmerizing architectural illusions, these calligraphies show how the surface transforms, as shown in Figure 12.

The Door casing (DC) placed on the arches opening is distributed horizontally and vertically along each archway and doorway, carrying the Nasrid motto of (no victorious but Allah). The calligraphy inscribed in the Andalusian Nasakh developed into unbelievably complex designs with geometric patterns as a basis and the word serving as the source of the artistic universe. The calligraphy of the North Portico of the Courtyard of the Myrtles contains highly symbolic elements. Calligraphy at chair rail (CR) carries descriptive poetry symbolizing “perpetual happiness” that expands and flows alongside Kufic and cursive epigraphs that include various elements, as shown in Figure 13.

To sum up, calligraphy placement was applied to various components found in the exterior and interior spaces in almost similar ways. The chair rail component (CR) was found in the two sections because of its importance, being the lowest component in height where the calligraphy placement exists. The calligraphy placement is richly distributed along the walls and cornices, starting from the dado level until the highest point of the ceilings. It was found that the most significant and heaviest amount of calligraphy is found on the wall panels component in the Al-Hambra palace, which contains an interlaced repetition of calligraphy placement. It was found that both Kufic and Andalusian Nasakh are the main calligraphy styles of Al-Hambra in different forms, sizes, and compositions. The two styles are found in all halls. Moreover, three calligraphy contents were found: Descriptive Poetry, Zikir (ذكر), and logos in all rooms of Al-Hambra palace. The Nasrid motto is that there is no victorious, but Allah carries dual functions: Zikir (ذكر) and logo. The compositional category is mainly repeated Horizontal organization with rich, complex patterns. Furthermore, the material used was plasterwork and wood in the interior spaces, with minimal usage of wood, marble, and ceramic in the exterior spaces. Calligraphy placement on the plasterwork material was made due to its familiarity and spread. At the same time, the frames are mostly decorated with various compositions and forms of 2D forms, 3D medium relief, and 3D high relief. It was found that unframed calligraphy was richly found in most of the rooms, which reflects the richness of the calligraphy placement in building decoration.

6.2. Al Azem Palace in Hama, Syria

Al-Azem Palace is a crucial case study illustrating elements of Arabic calligraphy decoration in interior design. ‘Ajami (عجمي) interior decoration is an Islamic design that existed in the Ottoman period, and it is a perfect sample using all the Islamic elements related to decoration. Arabic calligraphy is a crucial element of essential Syrian monuments where they spent most of their time. The first case study is the Al-Azem Palace in Hamah, Syria, named its patron. As’ad Basha al-Azem is the Ottoman governor of the region, who resided there until being transferred to Damascus. This palace is called the older brother of the Al-Azem Palace of Damascus since it was built before the one in Damascus. It is one of the UNESCO sites from 1979 AD. East Tazar (طزر), East room, and East Shurfa (شرفة) are studied in this research to conduct a rich analysis of the calligraphy placement of wall and ceiling decoration.

Table 4. The halls of Al-Azem palace.

No	Space	Hall	Function	Photo
1.	Interior	East Tazar (طزر)	The public area where the sultan used to host his guests
2.	Interior	East Room	Semi-public Middle area between east Tazar (طزر) and east Shurfa (شرفة)
3.	Interior	East Shurfa (شرفة)	Male area The last part of the east side, where the walls were designed with high and low windows to view the river

shows the details of the areas chosen for this study.

6.2.1. The Placement of Calligraphy at East Tazar (طزر)

Al-Azem palace has a double-volume Rawaq (رواق) entrance, which is central to three Tazar (طزر) in the north, east, and west. The word Tazar (طزر)s refers to the east and west rooms, which are one step higher than the Rawaq (رواق) entrance. Tazar (طزر) has three sides of the walls: middle, right, and left. As shown in Figure 14, each wall has three windows, while the middle wall has two windows and one door in the middle. The central door connects the Tazar (طزر) to the middle room of the east and west wings.

The calligraphy usually carries the most sacred content, displaying the word of Allah from the Quran, or religious writing that talks about a religious fact and essential names. The ceiling at the East Tazar (طزر) has no calligraphy. The east Tazar (طزر) ceiling reflects the Rococo style and pure ‘Ajami (عجمي) art, as shown in Figure 15.

Ceilings have an Upper Cornice (UC) that carries calligraphy in Hariri 2D with a decorated rectangular frame and blue background for the east Tazar (طزر). The type of calligraphy used for the Upper Cornice (UC) calligraphy is Nastalik. Based on Al-Azem Palace spatial planning, the semi-public room adjacent to the pubic Tazar (طزر) is the east and west rooms. The east and west rooms are similar, especially in the Ceiling (C) design for both. The difference that can be noticed between them is the background color of the overall walls.

The calligraphy in the east room is applied to the upper cornice (UC), the lower cornice (LC), and the upper door and windows in two rows. The calligraphy style used is the Nastalik with 2D ‘Ajami (عجمي) technique for the upper cornice (UC) and the 3D ‘Ajami (عجمي) technique for the Lower Cornice (LC) and upper windows. The content of the calligraphy is religious poetry for the upper cornice (UC) from the poet Al Bousiri, describing the greatness of Allah as a reminder for the viewer and a call for meditation and thinking, as shown in Figure 16.

6.2.2. The Placement of Calligraphy in the East Room

The west room in Al-Azem palace is the semi-public middle area between east Tazar (طزر) and east Shurfa (شرفة). The west room is painted with a broad green colour background. The blue colour in the upper cornice (UC) always symbolizes the sky and the highness of Allah over his creations, as shown in Figure 17. The distribution of calligraphy placement is guided by the central axis of the Ceiling. This axial application creates an overall unity, balance and symmetry of the decorating elements and components.

6.2.3. The Placement of Calligraphy at East Shurfa (شرفة)

The scripted calligraphy on the Ceiling of the east side has the names of the cave sleepers as mentioned in the Tafseer (تفسير) of Surah Al-Kahf. Diwani calligraphy is written on a dark blue background with a green background surrounded by a decorated frame covered by golden colour. The calligraphy is placed as a part of the beautiful composition of the floral 3D-raised motif, creating an excellent art masterpiece.

The arrangement of the calligraphy of the cave sleepers’ names is rotary towards the center of the Ceiling, as shown in Figure 18. The Upper Cornice (UC) got the 2D ‘Ajami (عجمي) calligraphy in Nastalik style and a blue background representing the skies. At the same time, the content again is poetry about the need of humans to get the mercy of Allah.

In some parts, the wall does not contain calligraphy at all its levels, but it contains Hadith (حديث) in the upper window applied using the ‘Ajami (عجمي) technique in a high raised form. The surface of the wood where the calligraphy is applied is usually a separate panel fixed to a lower panel at the back, creating a multi-layered wall, like the calligraphy on the Ceiling, where the ceiling is multileveled. The wooden panel where calligraphy is applied is rectangular, painted entirely on one side with a horizontal composition consisting of an Islamic Arabic inscription in high relief, and painted in silver. The inscription is surrounded by a 2D frame followed by the 3D golden-painted floral chain, and it is backgrounded with dark blue.

Both east and west Shurfa (شرفة) of Al-Azem Palace got the Hadith (حديث) of the prophet Muhammad PBUH on the upper windows panels. The placement of Hadith (حديث) at Shurfa (شرفة) can create a chance for the viewer to feel the stillness of this semi-public space and have a more vital linkage of meditation and deeper thinking of Allah and the words of his beloved prophet. These spiritual senses are interlinked with the beauty of the floral and geometrical ornamentation and colorful surfaces. As shown in Figure 19, the sentences are divided into four wooden panels in Thuluth style to give the viewer wisdom and a life lesson, saying that humans should work for their life as if they will survive forever and work for hereafter as if it is the destination.

To sum up, the components found in Al-Azem Palace are at eye level. The lowest component is found in the decorative panel above the window (DPW) and above the door (DPD). The placement of calligraphy is high because all calligraphy contents are long sentences that are direct messages to the viewers. It was found that there are three main calligraphy styles: Diwani, Nastalik, and Thuluth. Thuluth style was found to be the main calligraphy style of the Al-Azem palace, and it was always placed at the highest components of the walls. Moreover, the Nastalik style was placed at lower components such as DPW of DPD. It was found that most of the calligraphy contents are Islamic and ethical contents of Duaa (دعاء) poetry about Allah, Descriptive poetry for the sultan, religious poetry about the prophet, Zikir (ذكر), and Hadith (حديث) by using the technique of 2D flat Hariri, 2D flat form, 3D medium relief, and 3D medium ‘Ajami (عجمي). The compositional category is mainly Horizontal single-image organization with simple patterns. This compositional category is richly found in Al-Azem Palace since the major content of calligraphy is poetry, and this content of poetry requires a clear and simple composition to be more readable. Furthermore, the materials used were wood, marble, ceramic, and plasterwork in the interior spaces. The material used is mainly wood since most of the work is interior, while the frames are mostly decorated with various compositions and forms. Lastly, the frames are mostly decorated in the composite shape of a rectangle, making the extended contents of placed calligraphy easier and smoother to read.

In short, the analysis of calligraphy within the Al-Hambra and Al-Azem Palaces offers profound insights into the monumental artistry of Islamic calligraphy within the context of Islamic architecture. Across both palaces, calligraphy emerges as a central element, serving not only as a decorative embellishment but also as a vehicle for conveying profound spiritual, ethical, and religious messages. This aligns with the broader tradition of Islamic architecture, where calligraphy plays a pivotal role in transforming architectural spaces into spiritually charged environments. It becomes evident that both palaces meticulously employ calligraphy to adorn their interiors and exteriors, underscoring its significance as a fundamental aspect of Islamic artistic expression. The shared content of the calligraphy, consisting of Islamic, ethical, and religious themes, underscores its universal importance in conveying the foundational principles of Islam within architectural settings. Moreover, the diverse techniques utilized, including 2D and 3D forms, showcase the rich artistic heritage and technical mastery inherent in Islamic calligraphy. However, while the similarities highlight the overarching role of calligraphy in Islamic architecture, the differences between the two palaces offer insights into the individualized expressions of this monumental art form. The distinct choice of calligraphic styles, such as Kufic and Andalusian Nasakh in Al-Hambra Palace and Diwani, Nastalik, and Thuluth in Al-Azem Palace, reflects the unique aesthetic preferences and historical contexts of each site. Additionally, variations in compositional categories, materials used, and framing techniques further emphasize the personalized approaches to integrating calligraphy within architectural spaces.

Overall, the analysis of calligraphy in Al-Hambra and Al-Azem Palaces illuminates the monumental significance of Islamic calligraphy in Islamic architecture. Through its meticulous placement, diverse styles, and profound content, calligraphy not only embellishes architectural surfaces but also transcends them, imbuing spaces with spiritual meaning and cultural resonance. As a foundational element of Islamic artistic expression, calligraphy serves as a testament to the enduring legacy of Islamic civilization and its profound impact on the visual landscape of architectural masterpieces.

Table 5. The key aspects of calligraphy placement and its characteristics.

Aspect	Al-Hambra Palace	Al-Azem Palace
Content Theme	Islamic, ethical, and religious content (poetry, Zikir, logos).	Islamic, ethical, and religious content (Duaa, Descriptive poetry, Zikir, Hadith).
Calligraphy Techniques	Employs a range of techniques, including 2D and 3D forms.	Uses techniques like 2D flat Hariri, 2D flat form, 3D medium relief, ‘Ajami.
Materials Used	Wood, plasterwork, marble, ceramic.	Primarily wood, with marble, ceramic, and plasterwork (focus on the interior).
Calligraphy Styles	Kufic and Andalusian Nasakh.	Diwani, Nastalik, Thuluth (mainly Thuluth).
Placement and Purpose	From dado level to ceilings, enriching decorative scheme.	At eye level on panels above windows/doors for direct messages and visibility.
Compositional Category	Horizontal organization with complex patterns.	Horizontal single-image organization with simple patterns for clarity.
The flow of the Clarity and Readability	Varied compositions contribute to decorative complexity.	Composite rectangle shapes for easier reading of extended content.

contains the key aspects of calligraphy placement and its characteristics in the Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces, highlighting the differences in styles, content, compositional strategies, materials used, and the functional intentions behind the placement of calligraphy within these significant Islamic architectural sites.

Islamic calligraphy has been applied in architectural forms throughout history to convey deep symbolic meaning and spiritual significance. Calligraphy allows the integration of sacred text and geometry, combining the language of the Quran with the language of mathematical patterns. This unites the spiritual and creative aspects of Islamic art and architecture. Calligraphic inscriptions on mosques, mausoleums, and palaces serve as a visual representation of the faith. The principle of hierarchy in Islamic calligraphy embodies the Tawhid belief by arranging spiritual content in ascending order of sacredness. This hierarchical structure places the Quran at the pinnacle, followed by the Hadith of the Prophet, contemplations attributed to the Prophet, and poetry intended for reflecting on the Sultan, as shown in Figure 20. This arrangement visually emphasizes the reverence for each element, with the Quran symbolizing the ultimate sacred text, followed by progressively lesser but still significant spiritual content.

The flexibility and fluidity of calligraphic compositions allow for indefinite possibilities in designing two-dimensional and three-dimensional forms. Calligraphy can be translated into architectural elements like domes, arches, and columns, creating a harmonious visual structure.

Certain calligraphic styles and their application in architecture carry symbolic meaning. For example, the Kufic script, with its angular and geometric forms, was often used in early Islamic architecture. As shown in Figure 21, the placement and size of calligraphic inscriptions on buildings also have meaning. Inscriptions on the exterior of mosques often feature Quranic verses, while the interior may have the names of God and the Prophet Muhammad. A larger script indicates the importance of the text.

The use of calligraphy in Islamic architecture serves several important purposes and reveals significant cultural meanings. Calligraphy is used extensively in Islamic architecture, particularly in mosques, to convey history, culture, and spirituality. It is a central element that distinguishes Islamic architecture, as figurative art is prohibited in Islam. As shown in Figure 22, calligraphy is used to inscribe sacred texts from the Quran and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad on walls, ceilings, windows, and other surfaces both inside and outside Islamic buildings and monuments. This serves as a reminder to worshippers of the divine word and teachings.

The application of calligraphy in Islamic architecture also has symbolic significance. The calligraphic forms and their placement reveal the cultural and historical heritage of Islamic societies. Calligraphy is used to beautify and add elegance to the architecture, with the calligraphic elements often combined with geometric designs and floral motifs. The use of calligraphy in Islamic architecture is not just decorative but also conveys authority and the importance of the written word in Islam. The selection of Arabic as the language for the Quran, Islam’s holy book, gives calligraphy in Arabic a sacred status. Calligraphy is used to distinguish Islamic cultural landmarks and define the architectural discourse of entire regions. The extensive use of calligraphy in Islamic architecture serves to convey religious teachings, add beauty and elegance, and express the cultural identity and heritage of Islamic societies. The specific calligraphic forms and their placement reveal the symbolic significance and authority of the written word in Islam.

7. Calligraphers’ Validation

According to this analytical study’s results and findings, seven design principles for calligraphy placement in building decoration were found. These principles cover seven aspects of calligraphy placement: content theme, calligraphy techniques, materials used, calligraphy styles, placement and purpose, compositional category, and the flow of clarity and readability. Those aspects lead to principles that represent a prototype of the correct application of calligraphy in Islamic architecture. The principles were verified by collecting direct answers from the three master calligraphers for each principle’s factors and statements.

The first principle is purposefulness and meaningfulness. The researcher asked four questions for the three calligraphers, as shown in

Table 6. Calligrapher’s Verification on Principle of Purposefulness in Calligraphy Placement.

No	Principle of Purposefulness	Calligraphers’ Responses
		MAQ	MGH	IKAT
1	Calligraphy is a complementary element to the other beautification elements	I	I	I
2	Calligraphy gives specialty to the place in terms of name, date, and historical facts	I	I	0
3	Calligraphy glorifies Allah and describes the place and the owner of the place beautifully	I	0	I
4	There is a linkage between the function of calligraphy and the spatial arrangement of the place	I	I	I

Note: MAQ = Mohamed Adli Qabil, MGH = Muhammad Ghannoum, IKAT = Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq (I = Agreed, 0 = Disagreed).

. Purposefulness means that each component of Islamic calligraphy is positioned for a specific reason. The three calligraphers agreed that calligraphy is complementary to the other decoration elements. Thus, there is a linkage between the function of calligraphy and the spatial arrangement of the place. On the other hand, Abo Touq disagreed that calligraphy gives specialty to the place in terms of name, date, and historical facts. At the same time, he stated that it is unnecessary for the calligraphy placement to be related to the places, but there are unlimited contents and purposes for the usage of calligraphy in building decoration. While Ghannoum also did not support the statement that calligraphy glorifies Allah and describes the place and its owner beautifully, some people from non-Muslim also love to have calligraphy in their buildings and enjoy its decorative shape and unique composition. Without any doubt, calligraphy adds a historical value to the place since it is one of the elements that can define the place and its characters. Calligraphy is a nation’s heritage and identity, making ornamentation and calligraphy a complete composition. Looking at the sacred book of the Quran, the verses of Al-Fatiha are surrounded by decorations, proving the importance of having calligraphy and ornamentation at once.

“Like the Arabic decorations, calligraphy is detailed in rules and requires a high skillfulness that categorizes calligraphy under decoration elements. Decorations and calligraphy are equal in value and complement each other (Qabil).”

The three calligraphers had verified calligraphy as one of the main decorative elements that differentiate each place from another. For example, the calligraphy in the palace of Al-Hambra defines the place, the owner, and the time of construction of the palace too, like some documentary calligraphy that is found in the interior decoration and calligraphy at Al-Azem palace where the viewer cannot mix up between these two palaces or any other (Abo Touq). Ghannoum added that the calligraphy also expresses the position and character of the place’s owner, whether he is a caliphate, writer, military leader, poet, etc. Furthermore, calligraphy also tells the function of the place itself. Calligraphy is an undividable part of the decoration since the decoration is only an abstract form of ornaments and flowers that show the beauty and glory of the place. In contrast, calligraphy is a comprehensive knowledge and documentation tool that has an undeniable role in defining places and their importance, as well as documenting the achievements of the people who own the place and their good deeds in helping and supporting society. In short, Decoration only cannot fulfill the requirement of defining a place, while having both calligraphy and ornamentation can do.

The three represented facts are paramount and valid in terms of the researchers’ opinions since at least two out of three agreed with each statement. Thus, the purposefulness of calligraphy is one of the essential rules of thumb that should be considered while designing a calligraphy composition for building decoration.

The second principle is the principle of order. As shown in

Table 7. Calligrapher’s Verification on Order in Arrangement Calligraphy Placement.

No	Principle of Order	Calligraphers’ Responses
		MAQ	MGH	IKAT
1	Unity is applied through the repetition of calligraphy patterns into the overall order of calligraphy	I	I	I
2	Rhythm comes from gathering different calligraphy patterns in one frame in a variety of sizes	I	0	I
3	Symmetry is primarily centered on calligraphy, and it creates balance and unity	0	I	I
4	The repeated pattern of calligraphy attracts more attention from the readers	I	I	I
5	Balance is created by achieving other principles of order in calligraphy	I	I	I

Note: MAQ = Mohamed Adli Qabil, MGH = Muhammad Ghannoum, IKAT = Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq (I = Agreed, 0 = Disagreed).

, five questions were given to the three calligraphers. Principles of order are the main principles of several sub-principles, such as unity, rhythm, symmetry, repetition, and balance. Mohamed Adli Qabil, Muhammad Ghannoum, and Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq agreed that unity in calligraphy is applied through the repetition of calligraphy patterns into the overall calligraphy order. They agree with that because they believe that the repeated calligraphy pattern attracts more attention from the readers. However, Muhammad Ghannoum disagrees that rhythm comes from gathering different calligraphy patterns in one frame in various sizes. Still, he defined rhythm in different expressions and explanations, where rhythm is explained through colors, textures, and the overall composition of the decorative calligraphy panels.

Both Ghannoum and Abo Touq supported the statement that symmetry is primarily centered in calligraphy, creating balance and unity. On the other hand, Mohamed Adli Qabil disagreed with applying symmetry in calligraphy since it affects the calligraphy’s clarity. The three calligraphers supported the statement that Balance is created by achieving other order principles in calligraphy.

The most distinguished design principles are cascading and repetition. Repetition means proportion, consistency, and a steady rhythm. Cascading is also a form of sequencing principal calligraphy in repetition along a surface. Repetition is seen in the motto no victorious but Allah (غالب إلا الله). The principle of unity can be repeated in a Symmetrical composition on the left and right. Calligraphy becomes part of a decorative unit of ornamentation that has an axis in the middle. It can be written from right to left (Abo Touq). When the vision sees repeated calligraphy, it will balance the rhythm of seeing the overall heavy decoration design. The balance of colors in blue and brown on Al-Hambra is one of the prominent examples. The use of equal sizes of rectangles and the circular composition of calligraphy all complements the overall shape and unity of the hall without being monotonous. According to Qabil, there should be a clear understanding of the relationship between the shapes, forms, sizes, color tone, and placement of each part to complement the overall design. The inverted style is essential to integrate form, content, pronunciation, and sacred and spiritual meaning. Qabil stated:

“Calligraphy is the source of beauty and inspiration; each calligraphy gives a feeling of its spiritual content. It was making decoration before calligraphy, which will make calligraphy content unconnected to the context. The calligraphy inspires the calligrapher to produce the decoration based on the calligraphy itself inspires him.”

Abo Touq posits that Calligraphy is usually placed at the central point of the wall to reflect its importance and value as a message to the viewer. Repetition is one of the characteristics of decoration and ornamentation. In calligraphy, repetition represents the confirmation of the calligram content, where the viewer can fill his visual memory to go deeper into the details of the artwork and the calligraphy content. Repetition as a principle is essential to create a beautiful composition of artwork using symmetry as another supporting arrangement method (Ghannoum). Without repetition, symmetry cannot be applied since there will be no balance. The variety of shapes and patterns will confuse the viewer. At the same time, repetition creates an analytical visual memory that can create a better understanding for the brain to appreciate the artwork’s beauty. Qabil added that repetition creates unity and harmony in the overall shape while changes in detail can be slightly applied. Some artworks may look similar due to repetition, symmetry, and continuity. Having mirrored symmetry in calligraphy is a decorative concept that is applied to calligraphy. The calligraphy is inscribed from right to left and left to right on the other side of a central axis. This symmetry creates a harmonious composition of united elements where the art principles are applied to all the elements.

To sum up, the calligraphers confirmed the statements related to order principles, while most of them agreed to each statement and verified it. Therefore, the principle of order is one of the primary principles for a beautiful design of calligraphy placement.

The third principle is the hierarchy of position.

Table 8. Calligrapher’s Verification on The Hierarchy of Position in Calligraphy Placement.

No	Hierarchy of Position	Calligraphers’ Responses
		MAQ	MGH	IKAT
1	The placement of calligraphy contents shows the spiritual power of Islam	I	I	I
2	The calligraphy placement represents the sacred value of the Quran and Hadith (حديث)	I	I	I
3	Calligraphy symbolizes Islamic values through its placement	I	I	I

Note: MAQ = Mohamed Adli Qabil, MGH = Muhammad Ghannoum, IKAT = Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq (I = Agreed, 0 = Disagreed).

shows three statements on calligraphy hierarchy. The principle of hierarchy refers to the order of spiritual and sacred content based on the Tawhid concept.

The three calligraphers, Mohamed Adli Qabil, Muhammad Ghannoum, and Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq, supported all the statements for the hierarchy of position factors. The calligraphers agreed that the placement of calligraphy contents reveals the spiritual power of Islam. It represents the sacred value of the Quran and Hadith (حديث). Thus, all the calligraphers supported the idea that calligraphy symbolizes Islamic values through its placement.

In short, the hierarchy of position principle is applied through the spirituality of the calligraphy content and the sacredness of calligraphy placement. That is why the researcher also agreed with the statements given.

The Stylistic depiction represents the fourth principle. As shown in

Table 9. Calligrapher’s Validation on Stylistic Depiction in Calligraphy Placement.

No	Stylistic of Depiction	Calligraphers’ Responses
		MAQ	MGH	IKAT
1	Style is determined by the contents and the categorization of components	I	I	0
2	The style is affected by the 2D and 3D techniques and the form of calligraphy	I	I	I
3	The durability of the material and purpose affect the choice of styles	I	I	I
4	The type of the application surface, either concaved or straight wall, affects the choice of calligraphy	I	0	I
5	The compositional category in its vertical and horizontal distribution affects the determination of style	0	I	I
6	The distribution of pattern is repeated, single image and continuous way affect the style choice	0	I	I

Note: MAQ = Mohamed Adli Qabil, MGH = Muhammad Ghannoum, IKAT = Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq (I = Agreed, 0 = Disagreed).

, the stylistic depiction refers to the calligraphy style in the angular and cursive style range in terms of color, material, and background contrast. There are six statements of the stylistic principle. The three calligraphers supported the statement that the calligraphy style is affected by the form of calligraphy, while the form of calligraphy can be in its 2D and 3D techniques. The style of calligraphy is also affected by the durability of the material. MAQ and MGH agreed that Style is determined by the contents and the categorization of components. In comparison, Abou Touq got a different opinion about style determination, which cannot be limited to the two categories of content and component.

Muhammad Ghannoum disagreed with the statement that the type of the application surface in its concave or straight shape affects the choice of calligraphy since Ghannoum believes that artisans’ skillfulness is unlimited to a surface or technique. Furthermore, both Muhammad Ghannoum and Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq agreed that the compositional category in its vertical and horizontal distribution affects style determination. They stand with the statement that the distribution of calligraphy patterns is repeated; single images, and continuous ways affect the style choice. Mohamed Adli Qabil has a different opinion about the effects of the calligraphy style choice in building decoration. At the same time, he thinks that the distribution and compositional categories are flexible for all calligraphy styles.

Based on the researcher’s opinion, the calligraphy style is determined by multiple factors and conditions to choose the best calligraphy style for the best position.

The fifth purpose of calligraphy is the emphasis on spirituality and morality. This principle stands for calligraphy content that should not contradict the Islamic faith and Sharia. The calligraphers were given four statements on this principle. Both Mohamed Adli Qabil and Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq believe that each calligraphy in building decoration has a sacred message from Allah. At the same time, Mohammad Ghannoum stated that the sacred message could be from anyone else, and it is not limited to the words of Allah. The three calligraphers agreed that calligraphy has wisdom, quotes, and Hadith (حديث) that carry ethical value. They believe that the limitations of Islamic Shariah are the best guidance for calligraphy content choice. As shown in

Table 10. Calligrapher’s Validation on Spirituality and Morality Emphasis in Calligraphy Placement.

No	Spirituality and Morality Emphasis	Calligraphers’ Responses
		MAQ	MGH	IKAT
1	Each calligraphy has a sacred message from Allah	I	0	I
2	Calligraphy has wisdom, quote, and Hadith (حديث) that carry ethical value	I	I	I
3	The Islamic Shariah limitations are the best guidance for calligraphy content choice	I	I	I
4	Each calligraphy has beneficial and meaningful contents	I	0	I

Note: MAQ = Mohamed Adli Qabil, MGH = Muhammad Ghannoum, IKAT = Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq (I = Agreed, 0 = Disagreed).

Qabil and Abo Touq supported that each calligraphy has valuable and meaningful content. At the same time, Ghannoum agreed that some calligraphy contents likeو letters present a symbolic meaning but not direct beneficial content.

Based on that, the researcher supports all the statements, and he can relate the disagreement in some points to the justification, making the statement clearer. Thus, morality and spirituality always guide designers in making their calligraphy art pieces.

The proportion Principle is the sixth principle of calligraphy placement. It refers to applying the golden ratio in its details and general layout. Three compacted factors statements were given to the calligraphers for verification. The statement that includes that the height, width, size, and position of each calligraphy component should have a pleasing dimensional relationship was supported by all three calligraphers. As shown in

Table 11. Calligrapher’s Validation of Proportion Principle in Calligraphy Placement.

No	Proportion Principle	Calligraphers’ Responses
		MAQ	MGH	IKAT
1	The height, width, size, and position of each calligraphy component should have a pleasing dimensional relationship	I	I	I
2	The golden ratio can be applied in calligraphy placement of a variety of shapes using Golden triangles and logarithmic spiral	I	I	0
3	The aesthetic value should be found in the physical appearance of the calligraphy	I	I	I

Note: MAQ = Mohamed Adli Qabil, MGH = Muhammad Ghannoum, IKAT = Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq (I = Agreed, 0 = Disagreed).

, Abo Touq disagreed that the golden ratio can be applied in calligraphy through various shapes using Golden triangles and logarithmic spirals. At the same time, he justified that most modern calligraphers are not aware of the golden ratio, making it hard for them to apply it. On the other hand, Ghannoum and Qabil agreed to apply the golden ratio to various designs. All the calligraphers agreed that aesthetic value should be found in the physical appearance of the calligraphy.

Thus, the researcher believes that the nature of the golden ratio is an urgent need for designing building decorations proportionally using calligraphy. The last principle of calligraphy placement is the flow of clarity and readability, as shown in

Table 12. Calligrapher’s Validation on Flow of The Clarity and Readability Principle in Calligraphy Placement.

No	The Flow of the Clarity and Readability	Calligraphers’ Responses
		MAQ	MGH	IKAT
1	The calligrapher should plan the starting and ending of calligraphy, especially in Basmalah (بسملة) of Quran verses and the ending part two	I	I	I
2	The measurement and scale of calligraphy are directly proportional to the height of its position and placement	I	I	I
3	The color contrast between the calligraphy and the background is essential. The darker the background color of the calligraphy is, the more precise the calligraphy will be	I	I	0

Note: MAQ = Mohamed Adli Qabil, MGH = Muhammad Ghannoum, IKAT = Ibrahim Khalil Abo Touq (I = Agreed, 0 = Disagreed).

. It represents the planning of calligraphy starting and ending points based on the building layout, like walls, ceilings, and domes. The three calligraphers agreed that calligraphers should plan the start and end of calligraphy writing. Planning calligraphy is essential in Basmalah (بسملة) of Quran verses and the ending part two. They also supported the idea that the measurement and scale of calligraphy are directly proportional to the height of its position and placement. However, abo Touq did not support the statement that the color contrast between calligraphy and the background is essential. At the same time, he believes that calligraphy should be readable with or without color. While the other two calligraphers agreed that the darker the background color of the calligraphy is, the more precise the calligraphy would be.

Thus, the calligraphers have a clear point of view to support all the given statements since they are valid. The readability and clarity of the calligraphy need to be a main concern for the calligraphy placement to deliver the benefit to the viewer when it is applied to the design of buildings, which shows the glory and beauty of Islamic calligraphy and Islamic art. The results and findings from the interview were primarily derived from verifying the calligraphy placement principles that come from the analysis of Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palace by interviewing three master calligraphers. The three master calligraphers provided important information and gave their expert verification of the findings of the analytical studies. Each calligrapher provided corresponding ideas and information related to the research theme apart from offering their verification. Validation helps the researcher to achieve research objective two, which is related to research question two.

The responses from the calligraphers provided valuable insights that helped validate and refine the identified principles of calligraphy placement. For instance, the calligraphers highlighted the importance of readability and clarity, ensuring that the calligraphy serves its intended purpose effectively. They also emphasized the symbolic significance of different calligraphic styles and their contextual placement within architectural elements.

Through their expert feedback, the calligraphers confirmed the hierarchical placement of Quranic verses, Hadith, and poetry as observed in the Al-Hambra and Al-Azem palaces. They explained that this hierarchy reflects the spiritual and cultural importance of the texts, with Quranic verses occupying the highest and most visible positions to signify their supreme authority.

Additionally, the calligraphers provided insights into the aesthetic and functional considerations behind the choice of calligraphic styles for different architectural components. They noted that the angular forms of Kufic script are well-suited for structural elements like walls, while the flowing Thuluth script complements the curves and domes of ceilings.

The interviews with the master calligraphers were instrumental in validating the research findings and achieving the research objectives. Their expertise and perspectives enriched the study, offering a deeper understanding of the principles governing the placement of Islamic calligraphy in architectural design. This integration of expert validation ensures that the identified principles are robust and reflective of both historical practices and contemporary interpretations.

8. Conclusions

In conclusion, the preliminary investigation into the Alhambra in Spain and Al-Azem Palace in Syria has yielded significant insights into the principles of calligraphy placement in these historic sites. By focusing on factors such as the purpose, spirituality, arrangement, and framing of calligraphy, a sophisticated understanding of its importance within architectural aesthetics has emerged. These findings were further validated by interviews with knowledgeable and proficient calligraphers. The calligraphers consistently emphasized that calligraphy is a complementary element to other decorative components, highlighting its essential role in enhancing the overall visual appeal of the palaces. They also recognized the ethical value inherent in calligraphy, expressed through quotations, wisdom, and Hadith.

Notably, Quranic passages are customarily arranged at the highest points—cornices, ceilings, and dome tops. This deliberate placement reflects the respect accorded to the Quran, while Hadith material is positioned above common proverbs and poetry. The researchers’ understanding of calligraphy’s intricacies is enriched by the calligraphers’ insights into the significance of framing. The notion that framed calligraphy is more complex than unframed calligraphy suggests that the frame serves not only as a protective element but also as an aesthetic feature that enhances the relevance of the inscribed content.

This research contributes to the broader discourse on the integration of calligraphy into architectural settings by highlighting its intentional arrangement, spiritual value, and the role of framing in amplifying its visual impact. These concepts gain credibility from the endorsement of expert calligraphers, thereby strengthening their foundation for future research and application in the fields of architecture. However, several limitations of this study must be acknowledged. This research was constrained by the small sample size of interviewed calligraphers, which may affect the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, this study focused exclusively on two historic palaces, which may not fully represent the diversity of Islamic calligraphy practices across different regions and periods.

9. Potential Future Directions

To enhance the impact and scope of this research, several potential future directions can be explored. First, expanding the study to include a wider range of Islamic architectural sites from different regions, such as the Maghreb, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia, would provide a more comprehensive understanding of calligraphy placement principles across diverse cultural contexts. A comparative analysis of calligraphy used in architecture from different Islamic dynasties, such as the Mamluk, Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires, could reveal how historical, cultural, and political factors influenced the application of calligraphic principles in varying architectural styles.

Additionally, exploring the impact of modern technology on the preservation and innovation of Islamic calligraphy in contemporary architecture could provide insights into how traditional art forms are being adapted in the digital age. This could include the use of digital design tools, 3D printing, and other advanced technologies. Investigating the functional aspects of calligraphy in architectural spaces, such as its role in acoustics, lighting, and spatial organization, could provide a deeper understanding of its practical applications beyond aesthetic and symbolic purposes.

Integrating perspectives from other disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology, and cognitive psychology, could enrich the understanding of how calligraphy influences social behavior, cultural identity, and cognitive perceptions within architectural spaces. Future research could also focus on best practices for the preservation and restoration of calligraphic elements in historical buildings. This would be particularly valuable for heritage conservation efforts and the maintenance of cultural legacy.

Furthermore, developing educational programs and resources to teach the principles of Islamic calligraphy in architecture to a broader audience, including architects, artists, and scholars, could help perpetuate this rich cultural heritage and inspire future generations. Examining contemporary architectural projects that incorporate Islamic calligraphy could highlight innovative practices and the evolving role of this art form in modern design.

By exploring these future directions, researchers can continue to uncover new dimensions of Islamic calligraphy in architecture, enhancing our appreciation and understanding of its historical significance and contemporary relevance. This expanded scope of research will contribute to the academic field and provide valuable insights for architects, designers, and cultural historians.