The Application of Calcium-Based Expansive Agents in High-Strength Concrete: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Calcium-Based Expansive Agents
2.1. Classification
2.2. Expansion Mechanism
2.3. Expansion Conditions and Affecting Factors
3. Autogenous Shrinkage Compensating Mechanism of CEAs
4. Influence of CEAs on the Properties of HSC/UHSC
4.1. Hydration Characteristics of Binders
4.2. Autogenous Shrinkage
4.3. Compressive and Flexural Strength
4.4. Elastic Modulus
4.5. Pore Structures
5. Delayed Expansion of CEAs in HSC/UHSC
5.1. Delayed Expansion Mechanism of CEAs
5.2. Delayed Expansion Conditions of CEAs
- (1)
- The problem of delayed expansion occurred in UHSC with extremely low water–binder ratios.
- (2)
- (3)
- When the content in CEAs was high, delayed expansion-induced failure could occur regardless of the type of EAs.
- (4)
- Irrespective of the early curing conditions, namely whether room temperature or heat curing was applied, cases of delayed expansion occurred.
- (5)
- Even with a constant EA dosage, the incidences in delayed expansion did not directly correlate with the curing conditions (temperature and/or humidity).
6. Outlook
6.1. Mg–Ca Composite Type EAs
6.2. Expansive Hydraulic Cement
- -
- -
- metakaolin type (MK = thermally activated clay, Al2O3r−: 14.86% [123]),
- which, replacing Portland Cement (PC) up to 40% by mass, not only manage to form all of them rapid forming ettringite (ett-rf) [120,121,122,123,124], being in plaster-bearing solution [130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146], but, in addition, said Al2O3r− content of the MK used (its original kaolin doped with 50% quartz) stimulates it to hydrate to the C3A (%) content of the PC fraction with which it was mixed, at the same rapid speed as its Al2O3r−. That is, C3A (%) content of said PC fraction does not form slow forming ettringite (ett-lf) [133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144], as when it is without MK, but rather ett-rf [133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144] also like that of its Al2O3r−.
- (1)
- That counteracts its own autogenous shrinkage without said excess of plaster, thus giving rise to a “hydraulic cement without shrinkage”, and for that of an HSC/UHSC, K type, M type or S type expansive cements also only that its autogenous shrinkage will be different, of course, so your amount of excess plaster needed will be different as well, or
- (2)
- That it is greater even to the point of being also considered “expansive hydraulic cement” according to the ASTM C 845-90 standard [152], which, in any case, of the two, may also be considered CEA, different from the K, M and S types described above and, in addition, much more economical because the thermal activation temperature of the original kaolin or matrix kaolin is approximately half of the clinkerization temperature for any of the latter three. And if the clay used is a random mixture of illite, montmorillonite and kaolinite, which is the most common, whose kaolinite content is also <40% and even insignificant or testimonial [154], instead of using kaolin alone, its economic cost will be significantly even less. The only requirement will be that the Al2O3r− content of said random mixture must be >8% if all its Al has coordination 4, and >10% if the coordination of its Al is also a random mixture of 4 and 5. Or, for the contrary,
- (3)
- That it does not have any excess amount of gypsum but only that of the OPC with which it was mixed to be a pozzolanic cement type IV/A or IV/B of the EN 197-1:2011 standard [126]. But, in any case, the higher Al2O3r− (%) content of the thermally activated clay and C3A (%) content of the OPC are the more expansive the resulting expansive hydraulic cement will be and the more economical it will be as well because, in addition, a greater gypsum amount will be required like setting regulator as it is the most economical cement component of all in Spain and in many other Mediterranean countries.
7. Conclusions
- (1)
- The addition of CEAs is positively correlated with the compensation rate for autogenous shrinkage of HSC/UHSC within a certain range. Within the data range investigated in this study, incorporating more than 4% of a calcium-based EA can nearly achieve zero shrinkage or slight expansion in HSC/UHSC.
- (2)
- The addition of CEAs leads to a significant decrease in the compressive strength (over 15% in this research), flexural strength, and elastic modulus due to the adverse effect on the hydration process and pore structures of HSC/UHSC. In engineering applications, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the balance between the compensation effect of autogenous shrinkage and the negative influence on the mechanical properties of incorporating CEAs.
- (3)
- Increasing the amount of CEA can lead to the risk of delayed expansion cracking in concrete, regardless of curing conditions (temperature and humidity). Additionally, the mechanism, occurrence conditions, and preventive measures of delayed expansion remain unclear and require further study.
- (4)
- In addition to the CEA, K, M and S types, there is another one, based on the optimal mixture of OPC, thermally activated clay and gypsum that is much more economical and easier to dose and implement in HSC/UHSC.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type | Main Components | Expansive Hydrates | Main Chemical Reactions |
---|---|---|---|
CSA | C4A3Ŝ, C3A, CŜ | AFt | C4A3Ŝ + 6C + 8CŜ + 96H→3(C3A∙3CŜ∙32H) C3A + 3CŜ + 32H→C3A∙3CŜ∙32H |
CaO | C | CH | C + H→CH |
CSA–CaO Composite | C4A3Ŝ, CaO, CŜ | AFt, CH | C4A3Ŝ + 6C + 8CŜ + 96H→3(C3A∙3CŜ∙32H) C + H→CH |
Hypothesis | Main Content | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Crystallization pressure hypothesis | Anisotropic ettringite crystals continuously generate and cross-grow, causing crystallization pressure inside the paste matrix and resulting in expansion. | [37,38,39,40,41,42] |
Water absorption swelling hypothesis | Colloidal ettringite is able to attract a large number of water molecules, which causes interparticle repulsion, resulting in an overall expansion of the system. | [30,43] |
In situ hydration hypothesis | The ettringite generated by the reaction of sulfate and aluminate in the solid phase has expansion properties, while the reaction in the liquid phase does not. | [30,44,45] |
Osmotic pressure hypothesis | By the disintegration of expansive substances during hydration or osmotic pressure, coexisting pores are generated, causing expansion. | [34,46,47] |
W/B Ratio | Type | Amount | Curing Conditions | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
0.165 | CaO, CSA | 40 kg/m3 | (a) 20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing; (b) 20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing for 7 days →20 °C air curing; | [9] |
0.15 | CSA | 35 kg/m3 | (a) 20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing; (b) 40 °C constant temperature for 7 days →20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing; | [21] |
0.18 | CaO | 80 kg/m3 | 20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing; | [96] |
0.25 | CSA | 30 kg/m3 | 60 °C constant temperature curing for 8 h→ 20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing; | [61] |
0.15 | CSA | 40 kg/m3 | 80 °C constant temperature curing for 48 h →20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing for 7 days →20 °C 60% RH curing; | [72] |
0.165 | CSA | 70 kg/m3 | (a) 20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing for 7 days →20 °C 60% RH curing; (b) 20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing for 7 days →20 °C 100% RH curing; (c) 20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing for 7 days →20 °C water curing; | [98] |
0.16 | CSA | 30 kg/m3 | 60 °C constant temperature curing for 8 h →20 °C constant temperature, sealed curing; | [105] |
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Zhang, Y.; Pan, Y.; Ren, T.; Liang, H.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, D. The Application of Calcium-Based Expansive Agents in High-Strength Concrete: A Review. Buildings 2024, 14, 2369. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082369
Zhang Y, Pan Y, Ren T, Liang H, Zhang J, Zhang D. The Application of Calcium-Based Expansive Agents in High-Strength Concrete: A Review. Buildings. 2024; 14(8):2369. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082369
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Yulu, Yifan Pan, Tiezhen Ren, Hongtao Liang, Jianfeng Zhang, and Dakang Zhang. 2024. "The Application of Calcium-Based Expansive Agents in High-Strength Concrete: A Review" Buildings 14, no. 8: 2369. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082369