Spatio-Temporal Distribution Characteristics of Buddhist Temples and Pagodas in the Liaoning Region, China

Abstract

Buddhist culture in Liaoning has a long and rich history. The continuous spread of Buddhism has promoted the development of Buddhist architecture, leaving us a rich architectural art heritage. Furthermore, it has also profoundly influenced China’s architectural characteristics, social culture, and economic development. This paper takes Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning as the research objects and uses methods such as the geographic concentration index, nearest neighbor index, kernel density estimation, and standard deviation ellipse to analyze their spatio-temporal distribution characteristics and influencing factors across different periods. 1. Temporal distribution. During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) and the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), the construction of Buddhist temples and pagodas was the highest, with a linear increase in the Qing Dynasty. 2. The overall spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning is uneven, showing an agglomeration distribution state. The distribution status of different periods was different, and the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing dynasties (1636–1912 AD) showed obvious aggregation distribution. The overall state is “more in the west and less in the east” and “more in the north and less in the south”. 3. In different periods, the spatial distribution direction of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning was relatively obvious and was southwest–northeast, and the center of gravity gradually shifted to the northwest. 4. The kernel density of different periods presents the density distribution and area of each period. The overall distribution is dense to scattered and then to highly dense. 5. The spatio-temporal distribution characteristics of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning are mainly composed of deep-seated political factors, rapid economic development and stable social environment, diverse culture, natural geography, cultural relics protection, and the artistic value of Buddhist architecture in the Liaoning region.

1. Introduction

Liaoning, as a relatively developed region with early introduction of Buddhism in China, has a rich collection of Buddhist architecture. As the earliest and most successful foreign religion introduced and localized in China, the development and evolution of Buddhism are complex and diverse, which in turn affects the construction of Buddhist temples and pagodas [1]. Buddhist temples are important for Buddhist practice and education. A temple refers to the place where monks live, and a courtyard refers to other premises in a temple. Anyone who wishes to become a monk can go to the temple to practice, and those who wish to become a monk must “become a monk”, abandon all wealth, and cut off family ties. Owing to alms from the faithful and donations from wealthy families, the temples had a large amount of property and provided the monks with clothing, food, and shelter. It also built halls and stockpiled a large number of scriptures, which were supervised by adult monks in their studies and penances. The pagoda, also known as the Buddha, is called “Quden” in Tibetan, and it was originally used to worship scriptures or relics. Since its introduction to Northeast China during the Han and Tang dynasties (206–907 AD), Chinese Buddhism has become an important component of Northeast culture. Tibetan Buddhism was introduced to Northeast China during the Later Jin Dynasty (1616–1636 AD) and gradually spread to the entire Northeast based on traditional Mongolian settlements [2]. Buddhism held the position of national religion during the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), with pagodas widely built in Liaoning [3], while in the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), it reached its peak. The rulers of this dynasty vigorously promoted Buddhism and built temples in various regions, especially in Shengjing (now Shenyang) and the western Liaoning region, forming a group of Buddhist temples with a certain scale [4].

Domestic scholars have made significant achievements in terms of the architectural history, cultural history, and folk history of temples [5]. Most study on Buddhist architecture in Liaoning focuses on the architecture itself. In 2017, Xiang Yue explored the relationship between the sound and wind of temples and the spatial and environmental elements of temples through computer simulation and other methods and evaluated Tibetan Buddhist temples from the perspective of the physical environment [4]. In the same year, He Yingxian conducted a general survey on traditional Buddhist architecture in the Liaoning region. The study discussed the overall layout, composition of individual buildings, architectural technology, and art. Moreover, it also summarized the artistic characteristics and unique techniques of Buddhist architecture and proposed the reasons why Buddhist architecture in Liaoning presented rich and regional characteristics [6]. In 2019, Pan Xinxin and Xiao Mufeng made a preliminary summary of the spatial distribution of temples in the Liaoning region, dividing the internal layout of the temples into three types, central axis symmetry, double axis or multi-axis symmetry, and side rear courtyard, as well as analyzing the structural types and characteristics of individual buildings [7]. Overall, there is a lack of specific and holistic studies of the spatio-temporal distribution of Buddhist architecture as well as the reasons for its formation.

This paper takes 200 existing Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning as the research objects and uses ArcGIS, geographic concentration index, kernel density, and other methods to calculate and analyze the spatio-temporal distribution characteristics of them. It also reveals their historical evolution. With the historical background and existing research, the overall development trajectory and influencing factors of Buddhist architecture in Liaoning have been traced, so the construction conditions and environment of temples and pagodas have been derived. At the same time, it explores the cultural attributes and provides quantitative analysis of the relationship between the degree of cultural relic protection in different regions and the number of existing sites. Moreover, it provides a qualitative and quantitative basis for the research on Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning and provides a theoretical framework for later research on Buddhist architecture, promoting the comprehensive development of the protection and utilization of architectural cultural heritage in the Liaoning region as a reference.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Overview of the Study Area

Liaoning Province, abbreviated as “Liao”, is named after the eternal tranquility of the Liaohe River Basin. It is a provincial-level administrative region of the People’s Republic of China, with Shenyang as its provincial capital. It is located in the southernmost part of Northeast China, and its geographical coordinates are between 11,853′ and 12,546′ E longitude and 38°43′ and 4326′ N latitude, with a total area of 148,600 km², as shown in Figure 1. It has jurisdiction over 14 prefecture-level cities: Shenyang, Dalian, Anshan, Fushun, Benxi, Dandong, Jinzhou, Yingkou, Fuxin, Liaoyang, Panjin, Tieling, Chaoyang, and Huludao, as shown in Figure 2. The topographical overview of this province is generally “six mountains, one water and three fields”; the terrain is high in the north and low in the south, the mountains and hills are divided into east and west, and the central plain descends.

2.2. Overview of the Study Time Period

This paper covers 11 periods from the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386–581 AD), when Buddhist temples and pagodas first appeared in Liaoning, to the Qing Dynasty, which ended the rule of the feudal dynasties. Among them, the period when the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, the Song Dynasty, the Xia Dynasty, and the Yuan Dynasty did not build Buddhist temples and pagodas is excluded. Therefore, this paper analyzes the spatio-temporal distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning during the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386–581 AD), the Sui Dynasty (581–618 AD), the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 AD), the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD), and the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD). At the same time, due to the large distribution in the Liao Dynasty and Qing Dynasty, the distribution factors of these two periods are emphatically discussed.

2.3. Data Sources

In this study, the existing Buddhist temples and pagodas are distributed in various cities in the Liaoning region. By summarizing and organizing Liaoning Famous Temples; Ancient Buddhist Temples; Ancient Temple Grottoes in Western Liaoning; Chronicles of Liao; Chinese Local Records of Buddhism and Taoism: Temple Volume; History of Ancient Chinese Architecture, etc., the Buddhist buildings of different periods and different structural types in the books are summarized and counted, and the actual effective sample is 200 Buddhist temples and pagodas.

2.4. Research Methods

2.4.1. Geographic Concentration Index

The geographic concentration index is used to study the degree of concentration of geographic elements within a certain area [8]. The index G is used to determine the geographic dispersion and the concentration of spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning province as well as to measure their concentration degree in various cities [9]. The formula is as follows:

$$G=100\times \sqrt{{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{\mathrm{n}}{\left(Xi/Ti\right)}^2}}$$

(1)

In the formula: G is the geographic concentration index of Buddhist temples and pagodas; n is the number of cities, with a value of 14 in this paper; X_i is the number of Buddhist temples and pagodas owned by the i-th region; and T is the total number of Buddhist temples and pagodas. The range of G is 0–100, with larger values indicating greater concentration and smaller values indicating greater dispersion. If the Buddhist temples and pagodas are evenly distributed, G = G0. If G > G0, it indicates a concentrated distribution, while conversely, it is more dispersed [10].

2.4.2. Nearest Neighbor Index

The nearest neighbor index is the ratio of the average observed distance to the expected average distance, which is used to analyze the spatial distribution patterns of points [11]. By comparing the actual observed nearest neighbor distance with the expected nearest neighbor distance under a completely random distribution, the distribution pattern of the points can be determined. If the nearest neighbor index is less than 1, it indicates a clustered pattern; if it is greater than 1, it indicates that the distribution tends to be uniform; if it equals 1, it indicates a random distribution [12].

2.4.3. Kernel Density Estimation

Kernel density analysis considers that there is a measurable event density (also known as intensity) at any location within the region, and the event density at that location can be estimated by the number of incident points in the surrounding area [13]. It can intuitively reflect the distribution of discrete measured values in a continuous area. The denser the points, the darker the color of the area, and the higher the probability of the occurrence of geographical events in the region.

2.4.4. Standard Deviation Ellipse

The standard deviation ellipse is an effective spatial statistical method to reveal the overall characteristics of spatial distribution of geographical features [14,15]. This paper uses the standard deviation ellipse to reveal the spatio-temporal evolution of Buddhist temples and pagodas from multiple perspectives, such as direction and shape [16]. The center of the ellipse represents the distribution center, the long axis indicates the degree of deviation in the primary direction, the short axis indicates the degree of deviation in the secondary direction, and the orientation angle indicates the distribution trend [17].

3. Results

3.1. Spatio-Temporal Distribution Characteristics of Buddhist Temples and Pagodas in the Liaoning Region, China

3.1.1. Time Distribution Characteristics

The Liaoning Province of China is deeply influenced by Buddhism, so there are numerous Buddhist temples and pagodas. According to statistics, there are currently 141 Buddhist temples and 67 pagodas in Liaoning. By collecting the distribution data of the construction time of the existing Buddhist temples and pagodas in different dynasties, it can be concluded that Buddhism began to develop in Liaoning since the Southern and Northern Dynasties (581–907 AD). In the early stage, it developed slowly, with a small number of Buddhist temples and pagodas. There was only one temple built during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and three during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the Five-Capital System was implemented, and jurisdiction was organized in Liaoning. Therefore, the number of pagodas increased, with a total of 39, and after that, Buddhism was in a gentle state of development, with a decrease in the number of Buddhist buildings. For example, there are only eight Buddhist buildings in the Jin Dynasty. However, during the Ming Dynasty, all parties were stable and the economy developed rapidly, with a total of 22 Buddhist buildings. In the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), with the continuous influence of the political system, economic development, social culture, natural geography, cultural relic protection awareness, and the artistic value of architecture, Buddhism reached its peak, and the number of Buddhist temples rapidly increased, with a total of 108. However, in the later Qing Dynasty, it gradually declined (Figure 3).

According to the collation, the Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning were continuously built and developed over time. Among them, the number of Buddhist temples built in the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD) was the largest, accounting for 48.5% of the number of temples built in each period, with a total of 97 existing. During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the number of pagodas built accounted for 19% of the total number in each period, with a total of 38 existing. However, there were relatively few Buddhist temples and pagodas built during other dynasties. Through the temporal distribution of the existing Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning, it is found that the Buddhist culture here was more prevalent in the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) and Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), and the activities of building temples and pagodas were frequent.

3.1.2. Characteristics of Concentration Distribution of Buddhist Temples and Pagodas in Liaoning, China

Concentration Distribution Degree

The Liaoning region refers to the area under the jurisdiction of Liaoning Province today. The geographic concentration index of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning is calculated by the formula: G = 43.972, G0 = 26.726. Because G > G0, it indicates that the spatial distribution is concentrated, and the concentration is high.

Nearest Neighbor Index

With the nearest neighbor index, this paper analyzes the spatial concentration distribution characteristics of Buddhist temples and pagodas in different periods in Liaoning, as shown in

Table 1. Nearest neighbor index parameters of Buddhist temples and pagodas of each dynasty in Liaoning, China.

Dynasty	Quantity/P	Average Observation Distance/m	Expected Average Distance/m	Nearest Neighbor Ratio/R	Type	Z Value
Southern and Northern Dynasties	1	0	0	0	—	0
Sui Dynasty	1	0	0	0	—	0
Tang Dynasty	2	123,850.2886	175.9634	703.841043	Discrete	1901.529185
Liao Dynasty	39	25,293.0841	25,682.5107	0.984837	Random	−0.178818
Jin Dynasty	7	50,737.2953	40,067.9030	1.266283	Random	1.440851
Ming Dynasty	22	15,310.5257	20,556.5228	0.744801	Gather	−2.341387
Qing Dynasty	108	14,559.3217	25,789.5354	0.564544	Gather	−8.657396

. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties (581–907 AD) and the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the number of Buddhist temples and pagodas was 1, so there was no average observation distance, expected average distance, nearest neighbor ratio, or Z values. In the Tang (618–907 AD) and Jin (1115–1234 AD) Dynasties, the distribution characteristics were dispersed, while in the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing (1636–1912 AD) Dynasties, they were clustered. Due to the constant wars, low economic level, and poor protection of Buddhist temples and pagodas during the Tang Dynasty, the remains were relatively few and scattered. The Qing Dynasty had the smallest nearest neighbor index R of 0.564544 and Z value of −8.657396, showing the most significant clustering. The Qing Dynasty’s origin in Liaoning, coupled with its political and economic stability, rich culture, and strong promotion of Buddhism, led to a significant increase in the construction of Buddhist temples and pagodas.

Overall Spatial Distribution

ArcGIS is used to generate the spatial distribution kernel density map of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning Province, as shown in Figure 4. The denser points and the darker regional color indicate a higher kernel density value; that is, the higher the probability of geographic events occurring in the region, the higher the spatial distribution density of Buddhist temples and pagodas. It can be seen that the distribution characteristics of Buddhist temples and pagodas are greater in the western and northern Liaoning, and less in the southern and eastern Liaoning.

In the western Liaoning region, which is today known as Jinzhou, Chaoyang, Huludao, and Panjin, including the Laoha River, Daling River, Xiaoling River, and Medical Wulv Mountain foothills, there are 123 temples and pagodas (Table 1), accounting for 61.50% of the total number in the Liaoning region. The number of them in northern Liaoning ranks second, with 31 distributed, accounting for 15.50% of the total, as shown in Figure 5.

From Figure 6 and

Table 2. Number and spatio-temporal distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning, China.

	Southern and Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)	Sui Dynasty (581–618 AD)	Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD)	Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD)	Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 AD)	Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD)	Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD)	Total
Chaoyang	1	1	0	12	1	0	61	76 (2)
Jinzhou	0	1	0	7	0	3	5	16 (12)
Huludao	0	0	0	6	1	0	9	16 (2)
Shenyang	0	0	0	4	0	2	10	16
Anshan	0	0	0	2	4	6	4	16 (1)
Fuxin	0	0	0	3	0	0	5	8
Liaoyang	0	0	0	2	0	4	2	8 (1)
Tieling	0	0	0	2	0	4	1	7
Benxi	0	0	0	0	0	2	4	6 (1)
Yingkou	0	0	0	0	0	0	4	4
Dalian	0	0	1	0	2	0	0	3
Fushun	0	0	0	1	0	0	2	3
Dandong	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	2
Panjin	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0

Note: The number of Buddhist temples and pagodas with unknown founding date is 19.

, it can be seen that Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning are located in Chaoyang, Jinzhou, Huludao, Shenyang, Anshan, Fuxin, Liaoyang, Tieling, Benxi, Yingkou, Dalian, Fushun, and Dandong. The area with the highest quantity is Chaoyang, with a total of 81 temples and pagodas (including 2 temples with unknown founding years), accounting for 38.94% of the total. The number of them in Chaoyang accounted for 30.77% and 47.29%, respectively, in the Liao and Qing dynasties, and had the largest distribution compared with other cities during the same period, laying the foundation for the distribution trend of “more in the west and less in the east” and “more in the north and less in the south”. The special geographic location, cultural environment, and historical status of Chaoyang Buddhist culture have contributed to the Buddhist architecture here. Moreover, there are also many Buddhist temples and pagodas in Jinzhou, Huludao, Shenyang, Anshan, and Liaoyang.

3.1.3. Directional Distribution Characteristics of Buddhist Temples and Pagodas in Different Periods in Liaoning

In this paper, the standard deviation ellipse is used to analyze the spatio-temporal distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning in different periods. The elliptic center reflects the center of gravity of their spatial distribution in each period, the direction of the major semi-axis reflects the main direction of their spatial distribution, and the azimuth angle indicates their spatial direction of agglomeration. Furthermore, the elliptic flattening further reflects the directionality of spatial distribution. The larger the flattening value, the stronger the distribution directionality in this period, revealing the overall spatial expression and spatio-temporal evolution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning, as shown in Figure 7 and

Table 3. Standard deviation ellipse parameters of Buddhist temples and pagodas in the Liaoning region, China.

Dynasty	Center of Gravity Coordinates	Semi-Long Axis /km	Short Half Shaft /km	Area /km2	Azimuth /degrees	Flattening Rate
Southern and Northern Dynasty, Sui Dynasty, Tang Dynasty	121.87° E 40.57° N	187.70	48.51	28,598.48	122.48	0.74
Liao Dynasty	121.48° E 41.50° N	180.47	68.92	39,066.75	59.78	0.62
Jin Dynasty	122.53° E 40.77° N	144.57	66.94	30,401.70	99.39	0.54
Ming Dynasty	122.96° E 41.49° N	125.56	58.93	23,243.89	57.40	0.53
Qing Dynasty	121.10° E 41.34° N	185.70	75.28	43,912.43	71.92	0.59

.

1. The standard deviation ellipse shows an overall southwest–northeast direction, with the distribution center shifting northwest, corresponding to the political, economic, and cultural center established during the Qing Dynasty. 2. Compared with the elliptical flattening rate in different periods, the flattening rate of the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 AD) and the Ming Dynasty was smaller, and the distribution direction of Buddhist temples and pagodas was weaker at this time. The Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) and the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD) had a large flattening rate, a strong distribution directionality, and a relatively concentrated spatial distribution. 3. The significant difference between the long and short axes of the standard deviation ellipse indicates the directional nature of the spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning. From the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), and Sui Dynasty (581–618 AD) to the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the long axis decreased from 187.70 km to 180.47 km, and the azimuth decreased counterclockwise from 122.48° to 59.78°, showing a southwest–northeast shift. From the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) to the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 AD), the azimuth increased clockwise from 59.78° to 99.39°, showing a slight southeast shift. From the Jin Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, the long axis decreased from 144.57 km to 125.56 km, shifting northward. From the Ming to the Qing Dynasty, the overall direction shifted southwest, with the distribution direction shifting northwest, showing more distribution in western cities (e.g., Chaoyang, Jinzhou) and northern cities (e.g., Shenyang).

3.1.4. Kernel Density Distribution Characteristics of Buddhist Temples and Pagodas in Different Periods in Liaoning

With kernel density estimation, this paper specifically analyzes the spatial distribution density of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning across different dynasties, as shown in Figure 8. The distribution number in the Northern and Southern Dynasties was 1, and in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the distribution numbers were 1 and 2, respectively, accounting for 2% of the total. Overall, the distribution is point-like and scattered. In the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the distribution number increased to 39, accounting for 19.5% of the total and showing a clustering trend, primarily concentrated in western and northern Liaoning, with main distribution cities including Chaoyang, Jinzhou, Huludao, and Shenyang. This period saw a significant number of pagodas, influenced by the Liao Dynasty’s ethnic composition, administrative institutions, and climate. During the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 AD), the distribution number was 8, and the construction number decreased, accounting for 4% of the total. The distribution of aggregation has spread; although there are aggregations, on the whole, it is relatively scattered, mainly distributed in Anshan, Chaoyang, and Dalian. During the Ming Dynasty, the distribution number increased to 22, accounting for 11% of the total, showing a clustering distribution mainly in northern and western Liaoning, with main distribution cities including Anshan, Liaoyang, Tieling, and Jinzhou. In the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), the distribution number peaked at 108, accounting for 54% of the total, showing the highest concentration, primarily in western Liaoning, with main distribution cities including Chaoyang, Shenyang, and Huludao. The significant increase in temples during this period was influenced by political, economic, social, cultural, natural geographical, and heritage protection factors.

3.2. Influencing Factors of Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Buddhist Temples and Pagodas in the Liaoning Region, China

Liaoning is an important part of the territory of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD). During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the Five-Capital System was implemented, and the Liaoning region was once ruled as the Shangjing Road, Dongjing Road, and Zhongjing Road. According to the Geographic Records of the Liao History II, almost all temples and pagodas were built from the capital to the county in various regions at that time, such as the Clean Light Pagoda in Shenyang, the Chongxing Double Temples in Jinzhou, and the White Pagoda in Liaoyang, which are now key Buddhist relics under protection [18].

3.2.1. The Influence of Deep-Seated Political Factors

Political Policies of the Ruling Class

The ruling class of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) regarded Buddhism as a spiritual weapon to rule the people and vigorously promoted it. During the reign of Emperor Shengzong, he began to revitalize Buddhism. According to the Lament Book of Emperor Shengzong, “Three religions flourishing” was a direct reflection of the prosperity of Buddhism in the dynasty [19]. Later, the Buddhist worship adopted a preferential policy, and the position of monks in the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) continued to increase with political preferential treatment. During the reign of Emperor Taizong, Buddhism received strong development and support, with a focus on investing a lot of resources in the widespread construction of Buddhist temples and pagodas to establish “merit”. Its purpose is to win the support of the Han people, bridge the differences between different ethnic groups, attract immigrants, stabilize urban life, and further consolidate its dominant position. According to the Geographic Records of the Liao History, there were nearly 20 prefectures (counties) in Zhongjing Road, which were composed of ethnic groups such as the captured Han, Bohai, and Jurchen. The construction of temples and pagodas was conducive to the dissemination of Buddhism among the people, meeting the religious beliefs of immigrants, and giving them a certain sense of belonging. During the reign of Emperor Jingzong, Buddhist culture had already deeply rooted in the people of Liaoning, and the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) began to shift from accepting Buddhism to worshipping it. Moreover, in the later Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the royal family even began to use the national treasury to build Buddhist temples. The historical characteristics and ethnic structure at that time constituted the unique form of Buddhist architecture. The Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD)’s dense eaves pagodas formed a generally unified, standard style in terms of structure and construction [20]. Most of them were almost solid octagonal. “North is windy, so the pagodas cannot be empty and there is no one to climb”. This is the ancient people’s simple understanding of this kind of pagoda. Most of the pagodas were almost solid and inaccessible. However, the unattainability of them was not due to the opportunities and geographic factors in the north, but rather because the pagoda itself was mainly focused on external decoration and did not emphasize climbing. The inner appeal of religion was the only theme that the builders wanted to express.

The Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD) originated in the Liaoning region, and the importance of Tibetan Buddhism even surpassed that of Han Buddhism for a period of time. It was also important for the Qing government to rule Mongolia and Tibet by promoting and utilizing Tibetan Buddhism, “eliminating the disobedience and promoting the education of the masses” [21] and attracting the upper Buddhist organizations to further control Mongolian and Tibetan areas. In addition, it set up the “Dianshu Office” and “Huaiyuan Office” in the Court of Colonial Affairs to take charge of the reincarnation of living Buddhas in Mongolian and Tibetan areas and the matters of paying tribute to lamas in various places [21], taking measures such as granting titles to Tibetan Buddhist leaders; setting up offices in Khutugtu; building temples widely; and developing tribute, clothing, and grain systems. The Qing government chose Tibetan Buddhist management as the starting point, all of which came from maintaining the unity of the country. Although Chinese Buddhism was also valued by the rulers of the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), its status was far inferior to that of Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore, most of the temples and pagodas built during the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD) belonged to Tibetan Buddhist architecture. During the reign of Emperor Huang TaiChi, due to the political needs of consolidating various Mongolian tribes and the political concept of the “great unity” of the Chinese dynastic state, Shisheng Temple (also known as the Imperial Temple) and four Tibetan Buddhist buildings such as the East, West, South, and North Pagodas were successively established in Shengjing (now Shenyang). During the reigns of Emperor Yongzheng and Qianlong, the territory was greatly expanded, and the construction of Tibetan Buddhist temples also showed a historical characteristic of a sharp increase in the total number, an increase in the size of individual temples, the development of temples in clusters, and the expansion of the scope to remote border areas [22]. It could be said that “temples were numerous, and monks were everywhere”. The Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD)’s construction of Tibetan Buddhist temples entered a period of comprehensive prosperity.

The Personal Will of the Ruler

At the beginning of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), Abaoji revered Confucianism. By the reign of Yelv Deguang, rulers began to revere Buddhism, and by the time of Emperor Jingzong, Buddhism had become very popular. In the sixth year of Baoning (974 AD), “Shamen Zhaomin was the general manager of all the monks and nuns in Sanjing, and he was also appointed as the palace attendant [23]”. In order to manage the monks, Emperor Jingzong set up his own monk administration. In the middle and late periods of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the rulers highly respected Buddhism and were keen on Buddhist activities, and Xingzong even had to be ordained in person. “But Xingzong pursued good name, liked to change and slaughter” [24]. Therefore, Buddhist temples and pagodas were built in large numbers and spread all over the ruling area during this period. Until today, most of the wooden temples built at that time no longer exist, only in Liaoning, Shanxi, Hebei provinces have a small number of relics, but it has left a large number of Buddhist pagodas [25].

The rulers of the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD) built even more. Emperor Yongzheng’s obsession with Buddhism is unparalleled by other emperors, and he even compiled his own quotes from Zen Buddhism [26]. Emperor Qianlong was the most diligent in paying homage to Buddha among the other emperors. Moreover, history clearly records that he practiced Buddhism by his own practice and spared no effort in spreading the Dharma. The Yonghegong Temple and the Buddhist halls we can see in the Forbidden City were basically built by the Qianlong Dynasty. It can be seen that in the attitude of the emperors toward Buddhism, in addition to political factors, the rulers’ personal preferences also played an important role in promoting Buddhist temples and pagodas.

3.2.2. Rapid Economic Development and a Stable Social Environment

A stable social environment and prosperous economy are the fundamental conditions for Buddhist culture. Every time Buddhism thrives, it is inevitable to build temples and pagodas. This project is too vast to complete without a stable social environment and financial support. With the successive construction of the five capitals in Liao, the people’s hearts were stable. Meanwhile, agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts developed, and commercial activities became increasingly active. Therefore, the economy of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) developed rapidly. The economic situation during this period gave birth to the temple economy [27]. Most temples had a considerable amount of real estate and sufficient funds for construction and later operation. The main source of these funds was donations from society, especially from the imperial family and nobles, which provided a good material foundation for temples and pagodas. As a result, the temple economy [28] began to prosper. However, in the middle and later stages of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), the ruling class did not constrain Buddhism, which also led to temples obtaining land through various means and continuously expanding the properties.

During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), not only were the Dongjing Road and Zhongjing Road established in the Liaoning region, but also attention was paid to various aspects of local development, making the entire civil society relatively stable and peaceful. During this period, a large number of temples and pagodas were built, with a relatively large area and volume. The enthusiasm of the people for participating in Buddhist activities in the establishment of temples was also high, and various villages and towns were competing to establish specialized and distinctive Buddhist folk community organizations [29]. According to Zhang Guoqing’s research on the literature of stone carvings in the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD), there were various types of folk Buddhist activities, such as the Thousand-men organization, Buddha chanting, lantern, pagoda-building, and Taizi’s Birthday organization. There were also records of local people building temples and pagodas; for example, Chongxi built the Clean Light Pagoda in the northwest suburbs of Shenzhou (now Shenyang) in the 13th year of the reign (1044), which was funded and built by over a hundred local Buddhist people [30].

As the birthplace of the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), Liaoning once established its capital in Fushun Xinbin, Liaoyang, and Shenyang [31]. Since the beginning of the establishment of the capital by Nurhachi, Shenyang has become the center city of political, economic, and cultural integration in Northeast China from a small border town. As a result, Liaoning has developed rapidly in terms of urban construction, economy, and social culture. The tax revenue of the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD) ranked fifth in the total tax revenue of all provinces, which is enough to explain the economic development of this period. After the social stability, Huang Taiji spent a lot of manpower and material resources to rebuild Shengjing and changed the original four-gate layout to an eight-style. Meanwhile, he built the Temple of Heaven, Temple of Earth, Confucian Temple, Imperial Ancestral Temple, Shisheng Temple (Emperor Temple), and four pagodas and four temples in Shengjing, and renovated and expanded the Tangzi Temple [30]. The completion of these projects had driven the construction of other Buddhist temples and pagodas in the city. This temple is an urban type, and its emergence is due to the fact that in the past, urban residents belonged to a higher cultural level of the privileged class, and the construction of temples was mostly related to the support of the royal family, nobles, and senior officials.

3.2.3. Socio-Cultural Factors

The vast territory and intertwined ethnic cultures of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) promoted the diversification of the styles of Buddhist pagodas. In the midst of constant wars, both rulers and the lower classes strongly desired a kind of psychological comfort [19]. Therefore, worship of the Buddha and reverence for pagodas had become a necessary religious activity in the society. People watched pagodas to clarify their panic and pray for protection. At that time, people dared not sing high and could only bow their heads to pray. Although they could not change the turbulent environment, they could seek a little peace in their hearts. During the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), people’s demand for Buddhism and Buddhist buildings was no longer just for disaster relief and blessings, but also for charity and free schools [32]. Numerous temples continuously adapted to this need, and this also promoted the construction of temples and pagodas.

3.2.4. Natural Geographic Factors

Resource Endowment

The Daling River Basin is one of the oldest and most prestigious water systems in Northeast China. It flows through the western Liaoning, and together with the Laoha River and Xilamulun River, nurtures the profound Hongshan Culture, Sanyan Culture, and Liao Culture [33]. Since ancient times, the Daling River has been a scenic corridor, especially at the foot of Phoenix Mountain, surrounded by mountains and water. It has always been known as the “Land of Blessings”. Along the river, accompanied by the dissemination and intersection of literature, art, religion, and customs, different ethnic cultures were ultimately integrated into the common bloodline of the Chinese nation. The Buddhist culture of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) also began to spread and exchange, and the construction of Buddhist temples and pagodas had a site selection concept of “leaning against mountains, facing small hills, and close to water sources”. At the same time, it was a transportation hub for ancient communication between Northeast China and the Central Plains. Even now, Jinzhou, Fuxin, and Chaoyang, which are located in the Daling River Basin, still play important geographic roles, connecting Liaoyang and Shenyang to the east and Beijing–Tianjin–Tangshan to the west. Therefore, the rich natural resources and convenient transportation provide the basic conditions for Buddhist temples and pagodas in the western Liaoning region.

Natural Environment

Mountain forest-type temples usually have high requirements for environment, and are mostly located in scenic mountain forest areas. The diverse mountain forest environment also creates a rich temple space. These temples are built at the foot of mountains, near cliffs, between mountains, or between mountain peaks. The low-high layout form shapes the awe-inspiring atmosphere of the temple and the solemn atmosphere of the temple gardens. The spatial layout of these temples can be basically divided into two categories: Firstly, the temple culture is combined with scenic spots, and the spatial layout adopts a collection style. Multiple scenic spots are scattered and connected, as shown in Figure 9. The second is that some mountain forest temples adopt a multi-layer progressive and axisymmetric courtyard layout. Although both mountain forest-type and urban-type temples adopt a multi-entry courtyard layout, there are significant differences in spatial environment and atmosphere formed by these two types of temples due to different natural geographic environments. The overall area of mountain forest-type temples is relatively large. In addition, the traditional Chinese geomantic theory has had a profound impact on the location selection of ancient Chinese temples. The temples often tend to face water and the south. This helps to create a suitable microclimate environment, which has natural advantages and is conducive to creating a mysterious religious atmosphere.

Geographic Location

Since ancient times, the route connecting the mainland and the northeast through the Daling River Valley and the foot of the Medical Wulv Mountain was called the “Ancient Road of Western Liaoning”. In ancient times, Chaoyang was located in an important area between Northeast China and the Central Plains. It was in the Daling River and Lao Hahe River basin, where the ancestors of the ancient civilization frequently communicated with the outside world, naturally forming the earliest passage in China. There are four ancient roads in western Liaoning; three of them pass through Northeast China and Chaoyang [34]. The first is the Lulongsai Road, which starts from Beijing–Shunyi–Xifengkou, north along the Luanhe River tributary, north along the Laoha River–Ningcheng in Inner Mongolia, enters the Daling River Valley, passes through Liucheng, goes down along the Daling River, reaches Liaodong or North Korea, and goes north to Jilin, Heilongjiang, Russia, and other far eastern regions. The second is the Wuzhong Road, which starts from Xianyang–Handan–Beijing–Jixian–Qian’an, north to the Qinglong River Valley, into the Daling River Valley, through Liucheng, continues along the Daling River east to Northeast China, North Korea, Russia or from Liucheng south, through Shiertai–Nanshuangmiao–Shanjiadian–Yangshan, into the Xiaoling River Valley, through Guzhuyingzi–Liugu River–Jianchang–Suizhong to the seaside, and it is connected with another ancient road, the Waterfront Road. The third is Pinggang Road, starting from Beijing–Huairou–Luanping, into the Laoha River, to Ningcheng [35]. Then, it either continues north along the Laogha River, through the Xilamulun River, into the Uerjimulun River Valley to continue north, to the Greater Khingan Mountains area, to Mongolia and Russia, or from Ningcheng east, through the Nuluerhu Mountain Valley, across the Xiliao River, to Hulun Buir.

Three ancient roads converge in Chaoyang, making it an important passage from the Central Plains and West Asia to Northwest and Northeast Asia [36]. Therefore, Chaoyang naturally became the intersection of the culture of the Central Plains, Northeast Asia, and the Grassland Silk Road. For more than 500 years, Chaoyang was the political, economic, cultural, and military center of Northeast China. Furthermore, the business activities of the Central Plains Dynasty in the Northeast, as well as the contact and pacification work with the minority ethnic groups in the Northeast, were carried out in Chaoyang. This unique and important geographic location provided convenience for the spread of Buddhist culture, making Chaoyang the earliest center in Northeast China to accept and spread Buddhist culture eastward. Therefore, the deeply rooted Buddhist culture promoted the development of Buddhist architecture in Chaoyang.

3.2.5. Cultural Relics Protection Factors

Cultural Relics Protection Measures

During the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), in order to protect Buddhist architecture, the rulers formulated management policies for temples, monks, and nuns. In the second year of Shunzhi (1645), the government proposed a ban on the construction of temples and pagodas inside and outside the capital, and any construction of these must be approved by the Ministry of Rites. Existing temples and pagodas could not be demolished without authorization. In addition, it was not allowed to become monks or nuns without permission. For monks and Taoists, all official notes were required. In this way, the temple construction power belonged to the central government. On the one hand, the ruling class had more manpower, material resources, financial resources, and technology to build temples. On the other hand, the ruling class’s centralized management of Buddhist temples and pagodas could more directly protect them from external encroachment. This effectively allowed more Buddhist sites to remain intact. But there is no lack of Buddhist architecture lost in the turbulent changes of dynasties and history.

The modern measures for protecting cultural relics first include setting up cultural relics protection units to give priority to protect the main body and the surrounding areas. At present, the Buddhist temples and pagodas listed as cultural relics protection units in Liaoning region account for 86.54% of the total number, which is proportional to their spatial distribution, and their spatial distribution is also “more in the west and less in the east” and “more in the north and less in the south”, which is consistent with the spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning Province, as shown in

Table 4. Distribution statistics of cultural relics protection units at various levels of Buddhist temples and pagodas in the Liaoning region, China.

	Chaoyang	Jinzhou	Huludao	Shenyang	Anshan	Fuxin	Liaoyang	Tieling	Benxi	Yingkou	Dalian	Fushun	Dandong	Panjin
National key cultural relics protection units	9	5	4	2	2	2	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Provincial cultural relics protection units	10	5	4	7	10	3	3	3	0	3	1	3	1	0
Municipal and county-level cultural relics protection units	49	11	12	8	4	3	5	3	2	3	1	0	1	0
Total	68	21	20	17	16	8	9	7	2	6	2	3	2	0

. Cultural relics protection units at all levels in various cities are still under continuous application. Secondly, relevant protection policies have been introduced. In 2020, Liaoning Province launched the “Liaoning Province Ancient Pagoda Protection Measures”. In order to strengthen the protection and management of ancient pagodas and inherit the excellent historical and cultural heritage, in accordance with laws and regulations such as the “Cultural Relics Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China” and the “Implementation Regulations of the Cultural Relics Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China”, and in combination with the actual situation of Liaoning Province, this measure was formulated. In 2018, Liaoning Province launched the “Notice of the General Office of the Liaoning Provincial People’s Government on Implementing the Cultural Relics Safety Responsibility System”, which was formulated in accordance with relevant provisions such as the “Cultural Relics Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China” and the “Implementation Regulations of the Cultural Relics Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China” and in combination with the actual situation of the Liaoning region. At the same time, various cities have also introduced relevant policies to support the protection of cultural relics.

Awareness of Cultural Relics Protection

Various regions have begun to use the Internet platform to digitally collect immovable cultural relics and establish and improve the comprehensive management resource database of Buddhist temples and pagodas. While facilitating scientific management, it can provide inquiry and popular science services to the public, thereby achieving full digital coverage of cultural relics protection. They also have built a public data platform and information resource-sharing system to promote the protection, utilization, and management of cultural relics, and at the same time, the public can more conveniently understand the cultural relics themselves and the historical events related to them. In addition, they have constructed a cultural protection tour path for temples with Liaoning characteristics, accelerated the integrated development of cultural tourism, and shown the historical, artistic, and scientific value of cultural relics. It also gives play to their educational and guiding functions and enhances the visibility of cultural relic protection units and public participation, so as to enhance the public awareness of cultural relic protection and help create a new platform for cultural tourism in Liaoning Buddhist temples.

3.2.6. The Artistic Value of Buddhist Architecture in Liaoning, China

The architectural forms of Buddhist temples in China mostly adopt the roofs of the hard mountain type, temple type, rest mountain type, heavy eaves type, hanging mountain type, etc., among which the hard-mountain-roof building is one of the most common forms in traditional architecture; the architecture of Buddhist temples in Liaoning is mostly in this form. The details of the building are even more exquisite, and the building structure of large temples in Liaoning is more masonry and wooden frame structure, combined with traditional carving and painting. This is not only the ancient architectural art, but also a large number of paintings, sculptures, stone carvings, etc., which are also artistic masterpieces that reflect the social life of the past dynasties, so they have extremely high historical, cultural relic, and scientific research value.

The emergence and development of Buddhist pagodas largely represent the development and Sinicization of Buddhism in China. The form of the pagoda combines traditional Chinese pavilion style architecture with the spiritual connotations of Buddhism, showcasing unique Chinese characteristics. They not only occupy an important position in Buddhist art, but also leave important marks in the history of human architecture. A notable feature of the Buddhist pagodas in Liaoning Province is their dense eaves structure. As a specific architectural type of the period, the dense eaves pagoda exhibits its unique aesthetic characteristics in architecture. Firstly, the architectural form is tall and majestic, which is related to the scale ratio and building materials. The second is the rich layered eaves of the pagoda, and the dense eaves pagoda has a distinct sense of rhythm and hierarchy, which is widely recognized in architectural aesthetics. The third is exquisite Buddhist architectural carvings, where colorful character patterns are carved on the pagoda base and the first floor of the pagoda body to decorate the body. The architectural style of the Liao Pagoda inherits the artistic characteristics of the Tang and Song dynasties, with gentle yet powerful curves in the overall shape and architectural details, large and ornate decoration, and unique artistic charm and ethnic regional individuality [37]. In terms of artistic characteristics, it is a concentrated manifestation of Buddhist symbolic architectural art and a comprehensive reflection of Liao style dense eaves, structural art, and symbolic art, making it the most representative architecture of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD). The architectural form of this pagoda was also used in later generations, such as the Jin Mao Tower located in Shanghai, which has similarities [7,38,39,40,41]. This design successfully extracts the shape of the “pagoda”, combining traditional architectural styles with modern construction techniques, allowing the continuation of Chinese characteristics in super-high-rise buildings. Overall, the artistic value of Buddhist architecture in Liaoning is also one of the influencing factors for the inheritance and preservation of Buddhist architecture.

4. Discussion

1. Some scholars have conducted extensive research on the spatial environment and architectural structure of temples and pagodas, but there is a relative lack of study of the distribution, evolution, and formation of the integrity of Buddhist buildings. Therefore, this paper combines temples and pagodas to comprehensively analyze the spatio-temporal distribution, evolution, and influencing factors of Buddhist temples.

However, there are still some shortcomings that need to be further improved. A total of 9.5% of the temples in the sample lack records of their establishment years, but we can supplement the relevant information with field investigations. Furthermore, this paper also involves disciplines such as religious studies, ethnology, sociology, and human geography. So, it is necessary to further combine knowledge from multiple fields and disciplines to systematically study the social and historical mechanisms of their emergence, development, and changes, providing references for related research.

Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning were rarely developed before the Liao Dynasty. During the Liao Dynasty, Buddhism truly began to be promoted and a large number of Buddhist pagodas were built. Buddhism maintained a continuous development during the Jin, Yuan, and Ming dynasties until the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), when the capital was established here and it became the center of politics, economy, and culture. As a result, Buddhist culture reached its peak, and the number of Buddhist temples and pagodas was also the highest during this period.

The geographic concentration index shows that the distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in the Liaoning region is highly concentrated. Based on this, the spatial concentration distribution characteristics of Buddhist temples and pagodas in different periods were obtained through the nearest neighbor index. Except for the Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui Dynasty, the distribution during the Tang Dynasty was disperse, while the Ming and Qing Dynasties had obvious clustering characteristics, which is consistent with historical development. ArcGIS was used to generate the overall spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas. The spatial distribution characteristics are “more in the west and less in the east” and “more in the north and less in the south”, resulting in a high-density star cluster in western Liaoning.

In addition, this paper uses the standard deviation ellipse to analyze the distribution and shift of Buddhist temples and pagodas in different periods in Liaoning. The overall direction is southwest–northeast, and the distribution center shifts toward the northwest. During the Liao and Qing dynasties, the oblateness was relatively high, with a strong direction and concentrated spatial distribution. With the long axis and azimuth data of the standard deviation ellipse, it was found that the spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning first shifted southwest and northeast, and then slightly southeast. From the Jin Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, they shifted northward. However, they shifted southwest from the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, with the center located in western Liaoning. As a result, the spatio-temporal evolution pattern was formed.

The kernel density in different periods presents the density distribution and areas of each period. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, as well as the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the number of Buddhist buildings was small and distributed in a dotted pattern. During the Liao Dynasty, they were concentrated and distributed in large quantities, mainly in the western Liaoning. Moreover, the quantity was relatively small and dispersed in the Jin Dynasty. However, it gradually became concentrated during the Ming Dynasty, and it was during the Qing Dynasty that the distribution was the largest and most concentrated, mainly distributed in western and northern Liaoning.

2. The political system, religious policy, and personal will of the ruling class directly affected the rise and fall of Buddhism and the construction of Buddhist architecture in the Liaoning region from a macro level. This is also the main reason for the construction of Buddhist pagodas in the Liao Dynasty. At the same time, the stable social environment and economy in each dynasty were conducive to a temple economy, and then the temple and pagoda are continuously expanded. To a certain extent, the temple economy also leads to social and economic development, and the two promote each other. In terms of social culture, Buddhist temples include functions such as avoiding disasters and praying for blessings, charity relief, and organizing voluntary schools. Many temples have constantly adapted to these needs, and these needs have also promoted the construction of temples and pagodas. Resource endowment, natural environment, and geographic location also affect the number, area, and layout of temples and pagodas. The most direct way to protect and pass on cultural heritage is to establish cultural heritage protection measures and enhance the awareness of cultural heritage protection. The artistic value of the Buddhist architecture in the Liaoning region includes the architectural structure and the cultural transmission value, and the architectural art form of the pagoda has been used in later buildings.

3. By summarizing the spatio-temporal distribution and influencing factors of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning, this paper provides convenience for the statistical work on the spatio-temporal distribution of cultural relics and establishes a more detailed information database to show relevant information of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning, including the name, location, detailed address, category, and protection level. Thus, it can fully describe and reflect the overall spatial pattern, realize modern information service and management functions, and provide more comprehensive reference for the protection and development of Buddhist temples and pagodas in the Liaoning region. At the same time, we will strengthen the declaration of areas with few cultural relics under protection and continue to make efforts to excavate the historical and cultural resources of Liaoning. Historical and cultural resources are one of the important tourism resources for the protection of cultural relics and the exploration and interpretation of the cultural relics’ value in the Liaoning region. Relying on the rich resources of temples and pagodas in Liaoning, we can promote the common development of culture and tourism, design tourism products according to the spatio-temporal distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas, create distinctive cultural tourism routes, and activate cultural relics. To realize the protection of cultural relics in development and development in protection, we need to promote more cultural relics to live in the present and serve the contemporary era.

5. Conclusions

This paper focuses on time and space and uses qualitative and quantitative analysis to explore the spatio-temporal distribution and influencing factors of Buddhist temples and pagodas in the Liaoning region, from the Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Qing Dynasty, at a macro level.

(1)

Point density for visual analysis shows that Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning have a relatively concentrated state in terms of time, mainly concentrated in the Liao and Qing dynasties, with the highest number of buildings during these two periods.

(2)

The geographical concentration index shows that the spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning is highly concentrated. According to the nearest neighbor index, except for the Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui Dynasty, the distribution during the Tang Dynasty was disperse, while the Ming and Qing Dynasties had obvious clustering characteristics. The kernel density reveals the overall spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in the Liaoning region, with “more in the west and less in the east” and “more in the north and less in the south”, resulting in a high-density star cluster in western Liaoning.

(3)

The standard deviation ellipse shows the distribution and shift of Buddhist temples and pagodas in different periods in Liaoning, and the overall direction is southwest–northeast, with the distribution center shifting toward the northwest. Finally, it was located in the western Liaoning region.

(4)

The kernel density analysis of different periods showed that the distribution was dotted in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Sui and Tang dynasties. During the Liao Dynasty, it was concentrated in the western Liaoning region; During the Jin Dynasty, the distribution was scattered; During the Ming Dynasty, the distribution was gradually concentrated; During the Qing Dynasty, the distribution was the largest and the most concentrated, mainly in western and northern Liaoning.

The influencing factors of the spatio-temporal distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning are analyzed from six aspects: political system, economic development, social culture, natural geography, cultural relic protection policy, and the artistic value of the Buddhist architecture itself.