Construction 4.0 in Refugee Camps: Facilitating Socio-Spatial Adaptation Patterns in Jordan’s Zaatari Camp

Abstract

Though refugee camps are by definition “temporary”, many camps endure for decades, where individuals live full lives through childhood, marriage, children, grandchildren, and death. These settlements function no differently than cities in their social life, density, zoning, and operation, yet are “planned” through UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) templates for camps. The Zaatari camp in Jordan for Syrian asylum seekers, for example, holds a population of 80,000. Rather than viewing refugee camps as temporary human warehouses, this article demonstrates that camps are spaces where individuals build social networks and economic activities flourish. As such, the camp planning templates should include adaptive Construction 4.0 technologies for more socially flexible settlements, even if the camps are considered “temporary”. This case study research on the Zaatari camp illustrates how refugees adapt their built environment, identifying adaptation patterns that enhance both livability and sustainability. The work illustrates social and environmental changes that require adaptive housing configurations. The conclusion suggests linking modern tools in the construction industry to empirically derived planning objectives to be efficiently executed in moments of crisis.

1. Introduction

By mid-2023, the global population of forcibly displaced individuals had surged to 110 million, a staggering figure that includes refugees, asylum seekers, internally displaced persons, and those seeking international protection. The UNHCR defines refugee as “someone who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war or violence. A refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group. Most likely, they cannot return home or are afraid to do so. War and ethnic, tribal and religious violence are leading causes of refugees fleeing their countries.” People who are admitted to a country as refugees can claim permanent residency in the host country. An individual is called an asylum seeker until their request for refuge is processed and approved by the host country. If their application is denied, they lose the legal right to stay and may be deported [1]. Therefore, most “refugee camps” are actually camps for asylum seekers, as host countries want to neither grant the individuals permanent residency nor deport the individuals to their country of origin. In this article, we use the term “refugee” to include asylum seekers. Of the 110 million forcibly displaced people, refugees accounted for 36.4 million [2]. Remarkably, over half (52%) of the world’s refugees came from just three countries: Syria, Afghanistan, and Ukraine [2]. The refugee numbers from these countries witnessed a rapid and dramatic escalation. For instance, the Ukrainian refugee population increased from 27,500 in 2021 to 5.90 million in 2023, a direct consequence of the Russian military buildup around Ukraine in 2021. Similarly, Syria’s status shifted from being a major host of refugees, with 755,000 Iraqi refugees in 2011, to a major source of refugees, reaching 2.50 million by the end of 2013 and 6.50 million by 2023.

The future of many refugees remains uncertain. Out of the 110 million displaced individuals worldwide in 2023, only 59,500 resettled in a third country and 3.10 million returned to their home country. As of 2020, approximately 4.5 million refugees lived in planned and managed camps [3], which are just one of several sheltering solutions in humanitarian contexts.

While refugee camps are often viewed as temporary shelters for displaced populations who are typically isolated from broader society and treated primarily as humanitarian subjects and aid recipients, the camps frequently evolve into complex socio-spatial environments shaped by the needs and practices of their residents. Over time, often spanning a decade or multiple generations, refugees rebuild their social and spatial lives, transforming aid spaces into lived spaces and actively reshaping their identities despite the protracted political challenges governing their displacement. This socio-spatial transformation challenges the traditional perception of refugee camps as transient shelters and underscores the need for a deeper understanding of their long-term socio-spatial dynamics.

Refugee camps are designed following guidelines provided in emergency response handbooks such as the UNHCR Handbook of Emergencies, which provides insights into physical design features like topography, infrastructure, accessibility, proximity to services, climate, vegetation, environmental and gender considerations, and sanitation. For shelter design, the handbook offers guidance on area limitations, construction materials, and shelter options, including tents, shelter kits, plastic sheeting, temporary shelters, local materials, and refugee housing units. At the social level, the handbook recommends considering the social structures and relations within displaced communities and their hosting communities. This includes factors such as ethnic groups and family arrangements (UNHCR, 2023). However, many refugee camps are still designed with a grid-like layout that assumes that human needs are similar all around the world [4,5], without considering the social aspects mentioned in the guidelines. These guidelines are not comprehensive enough to support the design of socially resilient settlements. This research shows that refugees often work informally to compensate for shortcomings in the long-term planning and maintenance of their shelters and settlements. However, it takes them years of work, and they lack the expertise that this research aims to provide by incorporating Construction 4.0 technologies such as predictive analytics, BIM, and digital twins.

Some computational-based analysis and design methods such as shape-grammar formalisms, BIM, and predictive analytics can enhance flexibility in the design process, assist designers in tackling complex design problems, and aid in identifying spatial patterns in existing spatial configurations [6,7]. Construction 4.0 technologies would facilitate combining these tools with adaptive housing configurations and the associated social and environmental requirements prompting such changes in material and configuration. These Construction 4.0 technologies include Predictive Analytics, Building Information Modeling (BIM), and Digital Twin (DT) for the use of current data to predict future trends for better and efficient planning and design, and for real-time management of refugee shelters, making them more adaptable and resilient. Incorporating these technologies into the planning and development of refugee camps can enhance their adaptability and sustainability. Recognizing refugee camps as long-term communities rather than temporary shelters makes it possible to create more socially and spatially resilient environments for displaced populations.

Looking at the current research on integrating newer technology to aid in planning shelters and communities for refugees, recent studies explore various aspects of refugee camps, focusing on themes of materiality, housing quality assessment, participatory design, air quality, thermal performance, politics and symbolism, and access to land [8,9,10,11,12,13]. It is important to emphasize the architectural need for flexible, sustainable designs that use modular prefabricated materials while also promoting social interaction and climate protection [11]. For the Construction 4.0. technological aspects, Saad Alotaibi et al. [14], and Bazli et al. [15] explored the transformative potential of 3D printing (3DP), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the Internet of Things (IoT) in post-disaster shelter construction, focusing on sustainability and efficiency. Alotaibi et al. emphasize how integrating these technologies enables rapid, cost-effective construction and smart energy management in homes, addressing the growing demand for eco-friendly solutions. However, they identify regulatory challenges and the need for skilled labor as barriers to adoption. Bazli et al. [15] similarly highlight the benefits of 3DP for remote and post-disaster housing, particularly in Australia’s Northern Territory, where local material use and logistical efficiency could drive sustainability. Yet, they caution that technical limitations hinder widespread application, such as the lack of design guidelines for extreme environments.

More research is needed on the optimized layout and functional organization of shelter spaces that address the growing spatial and social needs of residents within refugee camps. While multiple studies address the materiality and architectural aspects of shelters, such as flexibility, sustainability, and construction materials, there’s relatively limited explicit discussion regarding the spatial arrangement and detailed programming of these shelters to best accommodate the multifaceted needs of refugees and how Construction 4.0 technologies can be employed to enhance the process of creating better shelters for refugees even in protracted situations.

Understanding how shelters’ spatial layout and zoning impact the daily lives, social interactions, and functionality of the refugee community (and vice-versa) is essential for designing adaptive and adaptable settlements that are more effective and efficient living environments within refugee camps. A more thorough investigation into the spatial configurations of shelters that are based on self-made adaptation patterns would contribute to the discourse on shelter design and enhancing livability and sustainability, potentially offering innovative solutions that enhance the space and community dynamics and improve the overall quality of life for refugees.

Based on the above, this study answers the following research questions:

• How do self-made adaptation patterns influence the spatial layout and functional organization of shelters within refugee camps?
• How can Construction 4.0 technologies, such as predictive analytics, Building Information Modeling (BIM), and digital twins, be integrated into the socio-spatial planning and development of refugee camps?

This study concludes that refugee camps, despite being intended as temporary solutions, often develop into permanent communities where individuals build social networks and engage in economic activities. The findings identify social attributes that can be quantified and used to perform predictive analysis to determine how a shelter and micro-community can provide the best spatial configuration to meet the residents’ needs. The findings also suggest that integrating modern predictive analytics, BIM, DT, and construction tools and technologies into camp planning can lead to more adaptive and adaptable shelters and settlements. This research highlights the importance of linking construction industry advancements with humanitarian planning objectives to address the needs of displaced populations during crises efficiently.

The following sections provide background and related studies, including the literature on the architecture of refugee camps, the socio-spatial practices of refugees in camps, and the integration of Construction 4.0 technologies in these settings. The materials and methods section explains the selection of the case study, data collection methods, and the analytical framework. The results section presents both the spatial analysis findings and qualitative analysis outcomes. In the discussion section, socially and culturally informed spatial practices, environmentally conscious practices, the spatial grammar of Zaatari camp, and the potential for integrating Construction 4.0 in refugee camp design are explored. This paper concludes with a summary of findings, study limitations, and suggestions for future research.

2. Background and Literature Review

2.1. Refugee Camps

Refugee camps, a common spatial response to displacement crises, often present inadequate solutions. While seemingly addressing humanitarian emergencies, they perpetuate displacement due to complex management, competition for space, and a symbolic distance that normalizes suffering. This distance is further emphasized by researchers conforming to pre-defined categories. Filtering for relocation happens only when suffering reaches a critical point, raising questions about how displaced people are forced to conform and the perception of “deserving” refugees [16]. Further highlighting the shortcomings of camps, Paidakaki et al. [17] detail the harsh conditions in Greek camps—overcrowding, limited amenities, and restricted access to basic services. These factors worsen displacement and isolation, both physically and culturally. The authors stress the importance of empowering residents through adaptable, inclusive spaces designed with community involvement, highlighting the value of each individual’s potential contribution. They call for holistic, flexible solutions, documentation of successful projects, and further research to refine the concept of resilient camps and understand the migration–resilience connection. Furthermore, Brankamp [18] argues that while refugee camps provide temporary protection from economic and political hardships, they also function as carceral spaces that cause long-term harm by perpetuating isolation, debilitation, and a form of “slow death.” Camps inadequately address the root causes of displacement and instead, reinforce harmful structures of exclusion and control. Brankamp [18] emphasizes that, with the right strategies, camps can be transformed into spaces that truly support and empower their residents.

The study of space in refugee camps is based on the following key theoretical concepts, shown in Figure 1, which investigate the social and physical space in camps.

2.1.1. Architecture of Refugee Camps

Refugee architecture, the design and construction of shelters and settlements for displaced populations [19], is a field that should not only address immediate needs but also respect and incorporate cultural context, long-term functionality, and potential for adaptation [8,9,13]. By focusing on user needs, it ensures the effectiveness of creating spaces for displaced populations [10], which should evolve through the everyday practices of refugees, reflecting their agency and needs [20,21]. Refugee spaces should be designed to include areas for social interaction, livelihood activities, and cultural expression [21,22,23].

Standardized shelter solutions often fail to address user needs over time [8]. Emergency architecture needs to move beyond immediate response. It should focus on comprehensive planning for the long-term social inclusion of refugees [23,24]. This comprehensive planning is not just a luxury but a necessity, as it ensures that the needs of refugees are met not just in the short term but also in the long term. Dantas et al. [19] emphasize the necessity of tailored approaches for different types of emergency settlements. Their study reveals that many refugee settlements become quasi-permanent and require nuanced medium- and long-term policies and infrastructure planning. This complexity underscores the inadequacy of a one-size-fits-all strategy for planning and managing these settlements, advocating for urban planning strategies to enhance functionality and sustainability [19].

2.1.2. Spatial and Social Practices in Refugee Camps

Physical space is where people move, meet, live, and interact. It can be created spontaneously or through a process of design and planning [25,26,27]. According to Knoblauch and Löw (2020) [28], physical space can be understood through spatial logics, which include territory, trajectory, place, and network—dimensions they identify as the constitutive and rational aspects of socio-spatial relations. Spatial practices, in refugee camps, revolve around creating and recreating physical space. Nilsen [26] defines spatial reproduction as the design of the built environment and the establishment of physical settings for human activity, with an emphasis on the linkages between physical spaces and the planning and construction processes.

At the social level, social space is the product of group dynamics, with varying access to economic, social, and cultural capital shaping the spatial order. People are the key players in organizing and influencing space through their own social arrangements and behaviors. Factors that influence social behavior in space include creating boundaries, defining territories which refer to controlling what is inside and limiting access or excluding others, practices of place attachment, resistance, solidarity, and engagement in social and cultural activities [12,17,21,26,29,30]. Tayob [23] examines migrant-run markets in Bellville, Cape Town, as complex infrastructures crucial for new migrants. This study emphasizes the need for a nuanced understanding of these spaces, which includes understanding the social dynamics, economic activities, and cultural significance, and advocates for re-evaluating urban infrastructures and policies to better accommodate migrant communities

As an example of space appropriation, Ting [31] examines how Shan people displaced by conflict in Myanmar have built a sense of home despite their uncertain legal status and impermanent housing. The author argues that homemaking is an ongoing process for refugees, even in difficult circumstances. Shan people use everyday practices to create a sense of familiarity and community in their temporary dwellings. These dwellings become more than just shelters; they transform into homes over time through shared experiences and cultural practices. Their movement across borders allows them to maintain social connections and build a wider sense of “home territory” that transcends physical location. This challenges the idea that displacement is simply a state of being “out of place.” Ting argues that homemaking for the displaced Shan is a complex process shaped by their mobility, their ongoing connection to their homeland, and the political forces they encounter.

Foundational texts by Bourdieu [32] and Lefebvre [33] argue that space is socially produced and is the result of human operations of synthesis (production). Sociological studies introduce social space as a realm of relations and interactions created by groups of people with varying access to economic, social, and cultural capital [34]. Similarly, Robinson [27] defines social space as a physical space imbued with meanings generated by the groups of people who use it. Kreuzer et al. [35] also note that social space describes relationships between individuals within physical spaces. Bourdieu conceptualized social space as structured so that groups located close to one another share proximity in this space, connecting it to physical (geographic) space through the concept of location or distance [32,36]. According to Bourdieu [32], people who are close in social space tend to be physically close in geographic space as well.

The concept of social capital is frequently discussed in the literature as a space-modifying factor. Social capital is crucial in influencing how social capital is a key concept that influences how the social space is produced or created [34,35,37,38,39,40]. It refers to the social relations between individuals and the dynamics that occur within these interactions [40].

Furthermore, the space we inhabit can be perceived as a system of social goods or as a structure composed of individuals who form the social order. It is shaped by the interaction between social activities and social structures [34,41,42]. Space is a product of human activities, as well as individual and social behavior [34,41]. According to Kühtreiber [41], people play a vital role in shaping space by organizing themselves and objects, which in turn impacts the space through these arrangements.

Exploring the relationship between social space and physical space, as well as refugees’ social and spatial practices, is pivotal in evaluating the livability of camps. Recent studies have homed in on two key aspects of spatial practices: spatial appropriation practices and spatial reproduction patterns. Spatial appropriation practices involve human activities and daily routines that mold the use and meaning of existing or created spaces. Scholars underscore that spatial appropriation imbues physical and symbolic significance to spaces, potentially transforming the physical environment into meaningful places for inhabitants [30,43].

2.2. Technological Integration in Refugee Camp Design

The Fourth Industrial Revolution represents an evolution in science and technology, transitioning from traditional industrial operations to a new era of digitized and interconnected systems. This shift involves integrating advanced computational power, smart technologies, and intelligent machine learning algorithms, leading to fully intelligent and interconnected production environments. Technologies such as augmented reality (AR), system integration, cloud computing, big data mining, IoT, additive manufacturing, cyber security, predictive analytics, robotics, and simulation are central to this transformation. The integration of Industry 4.0 technologies in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) sector, often referred to as Construction 4.0, aims to address key challenges related to productivity and sustainability. The adoption of these technologies facilitates significant transformations across various phases of construction, including architectural and design planning, execution, and support process management [44,45].

2.2.1. Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Digital Twin (DT)

Building Information Modeling (BIM) tools and methods are increasingly utilized to manage data and information for the retrofit process, particularly with advancements in Digital Twin (DT) technology [46,47]. BIM extends beyond traditional 2D drawings by incorporating an integrated database capable of processing dynamic data and facilitating automated data exchange between sensors and the BIM model. This integration enables real-time visualizations and coordination of information by combining various types of models, including design, geometry, and behavioral models [48,49,50]. Digital twins, on the other hand, represent a digital counterpart of physical assets, including buildings and infrastructure. Digital twins provide real-time data on the condition and performance of assets, enabling predictive maintenance and operational optimization. The real-time nature of digital twins supports better decision-making and facility management, offering significant benefits throughout the asset’s lifecycle [51,52].

2.2.2. Shape Grammar

Shape grammar, as discussed in the works of Haakonsen et al. [53], Paio et al. [54], Verniz and Duarte [55,56], E Costa et al. [57], and Barros et al. [58], refers to a formalism used in architectural and urban design to explore, analyze, and generate design alternatives based on a set of rules and shapes. It is a concept first introduced by Stiny and Gips in 1972. Employing shape-grammars-based design approaches can enhance flexibility in the design process, assist designers in tackling complex design problems, and aid in identifying spatial patterns in existing spatial configurations [6,7]. Shape grammars are rule-based formalisms that generate a design language through step-by-step processes, employing visual computations of shape production and transformation [59,60], making them a valuable tool for testing and evaluating different design alternatives [61] for predictive analysis.

As for refugee camps, such camps and settlements sometimes become similar to urban environments in terms of social life, congestion, planning, and service provision. The Zaatari camp in Jordan is an example of how refugees have informally and independently re-created their shelter environment based on their needs and participated in making the camp an urban-like environment. Using shape grammar formalisms, this phenomenon was studied by Abu-Aridah et al. [29] in 2024, to analyze the self-made shelter layout, informal spatial patterns, typology, and adaptability.

The study by Abu-Aridah et al. [29] revealed the potential of informal flexible modularity in shelter design. This process, captured by shape grammar, allows for organic growth that aligns with refugees’ preferences and circumstances. The grammar demonstrated the informal and adaptive nature of refugee-led design processes within the camp, showcasing its potential to create new shelter layouts that meet households’ social and spatial needs.

3. Materials and Methods

This study employs an embedded mixed-methods research design, simultaneously collecting quantitative (spatial) and qualitative data and understanding the potential of integrating the outcomes in Construction 4.0 technologies, as illustrated in Figure 2. The research was conducted in three steps:

• Simultaneous Analysis of Qualitative and Spatial Data: the first step involved studying both social (qualitative) and spatial (quantitative) data to identify common patterns in the camp.
• Causal Analysis: next, the potential causality between social patterns and spatial configurations was analyzed.
• Integration with Construction 4.0 Technologies: finally, this study explored how to integrate the findings from the social and spatial analyses into Construction 4.0 technologies, including predictive analytics for scenario planning for refugees considering their social structures and spatial needs by optimum use of land, Building Information Modeling, and Digital Twins.

3.1. Case Study Selection: The Zaatari Camp

This study uses the Zaatari camp in Jordan, which is one of the largest refugee camps in the world, as a case study. It is home to more than 80,000 Syrian refugees and it has more than 26,000 occupied shelters. It was established in 2012 close to Jordan’s northern border with Syria [3]. Data for this paper are part of a larger research project collected through field observation, on-site documentation of shelter layouts, and face-to-face in-depth interviews with 64 households from the Zaatari camp. The sample size was determined based on previous studies of a similar qualitative nature by Steigemann and Misselwitz [21], Bilecen [62], Garcia and Haddock [63], Sanyal [64], Zíla [65] which demonstrated that 30 to 50 interviews are conducted to make the study outcomes generalizable.

The Zaatari camp, sprawling over 530 hectares of land owned by the Jordanian armed forces [3], was designed following a grid system based on the guidelines outlined in the UNHCR Handbook for Emergencies [66] and the Sphere Handbook [67]. The camp is divided into 12 districts as shown in Figure 3. Those districts are subdivided into blocks and sub-blocks using streets and circulation paths. The sub-blocks represent the smallest units within the layout of the camp, with each sub-block containing a certain number of shelters or housing units. At its inception, the camp used tents to shelter the refugees. Later, prefabricated units, locally referred to as ‘Caravans’, were arranged in rows within the grid system. However, what truly stands out is the significant changes made by the users to the original arrangement of shelters, a testament to their adaptability and resilience.

3.2. Data Collection and Analysis

3.2.1. Data Collection

Data for this study were collected through field observation, on-site documentation of shelter layouts, and face-to-face in-depth semi-structured interviews with three households from the Zaatari camp. A stratified random selection technique was used to recruit participants. Interviews were conducted in July and August 2022 in the interviewees’ shelters at a place of their choice. Three districts from the camp were selected based on the date of establishment of the district, the place of origin of hosted refugees, and the residential density of those districts. Districts No. 1, 4, and 12 were identified for data collection. The selection of the locations (districts) within the camp where data were collected was conducted with the help of the UNHCR’s technical team to ensure that the selected districts are representative of the population of the camp. Multiple blocks were randomly selected from each district, and refugees were randomly selected from the selected blocks.

Interviews: Semi-structured interviews were conducted in Arabic to gather in-depth insights and perspectives from participants regarding their spatial and social experiences in the camp and their hometowns before displacement. The interviews were designed to be open-ended, allowing participants to express their thoughts, experiences, and viewpoints freely. Topics covered included participants’ pre-displacement social and spatial experiences in their hometowns and their post-displacement experiences in the camp.

Field and Shelter Documentation: Field documentation involves recording observations, interactions, and events relevant to the research focus. Photography, sketches, video recordings, and audio recordings were utilized to complement observational notes and capture visual data for analysis. Moreover, shelter layouts were documented during the fieldwork using real-time sketching—as shown in Figure 4- and measurements were documented using a laser measurement tool. The shelter layouts presented in this article represent the conditions of the shelters as of August 2022.

3.2.2. Analytical Framework

Qualitative data analysis (Figure 5): The researcher manually transcribed the audio recordings of the interviews verbatim in Arabic. For data analysis, Atlas.ti 23 qualitative data analysis software was used to manage and analyze the data. The analysis process involved reading, re-reading, and coding the transcripts to identify significant categories and patterns. These categories were then classified into broader themes that aligned with this study’s aims.

Data were coded and analyzed using the coding methods described by Saldaña [68] following two cycles of coding. In the first cycle, open and descriptive coding was employed to break down the interview data into discrete parts, closely examining and comparing them for similarities and differences. Emotions and values coding were also incorporated in this cycle. In the second cycle, axial and pattern coding were used to group codes into categories and identify themes. This step involved identifying relationships among the open and descriptive codes to form categories and subcategories, aiding in understanding the broader context and connections between different codes.

Analysis of Shelter Layouts (Figure 6): Shelter layouts were studied to identify their main spatial relationships and structural components. First, all layout sketches were digitized in AutoCAD to prepare them for shape/layout analysis, which revealed recurrent patterns and configurations. Second, functional analysis was performed to understand the functional zones within shelters and understand how these zones are arranged within different shelter types. Third, key spatial recurring patterns were identified through the analysis. The following step involved contextual analysis to relate spatial patterns to social, environmental, and cultural factors influencing the shelter layouts.

4. Results

4.1. Spatial Analysis Findings and the Zaatari Camp Grammar

4.1.1. Geometric/Shape Analysis

The shelter layouts in the Zaatari camp are dominated by rectangular shapes, with prefabricated structures (Caravans) consistently sized between 5 to 7.5 m in length and 3 m in width. These Caravans serve as the core units around which each shelter is organized. The layouts exhibit varied patterns, as shown in Figure 7, forming functional clusters that include living rooms, kitchens, bathrooms, sleeping areas, guest rooms, and outdoor spaces. These arrangements reflect different household sizes and needs while maintaining a consistent proportion and modularity in layouts.

Caravans are positioned to create clusters that facilitate the integration of indoor and outdoor spaces. Outdoor areas such as the Sibat (paved patios) and Hawsh/Hakoura (yards) are integral to the spatial configuration, providing additional areas for socializing and reflecting cultural preferences for outdoor living. Figure 8 illustrates the geometric relationships between indoor and outdoor spaces, highlighting the emphasis on ventilation, natural lighting, and social interaction.

Outdoor spaces are often located adjacent to or between indoor areas, creating connections that enhance circulation and accessibility. Some layouts feature centralized outdoor spaces surrounded by indoor rooms, forming internal courtyards that offer privacy and access to open air. The integration of outdoor spaces within the layout underscores a refugees’ practice and spatial configuration that values outdoor living, recreation, and cultural traditions. Functional zoning is evident, with specific types of indoor spaces linked to particular outdoor areas, creating organized and purposeful living environments.

4.1.2. Functional Analysis

The functional analysis of the Zaatari camp shelters reveals that the Caravans serve as central living spaces, accommodating multiple-purpose spaces such as sleeping, living, and guest areas. These multipurpose spaces are created to support daily household activities and provide rest at night. Temporary construction materials expand the core units, creating additional spaces for kitchens, toilets, and bathrooms [29], which are essential for cooking, hygiene, and food preparation.

Designated areas like the Madafa are used for hosting guests, while the Sibat, a front patio, serves as a space for outdoor seating and socializing, especially during cooler times of the day. The front and backyards, known as Hawsh or Hakoura, are created by constructing high fences, offering private outdoor spaces that reflect the pre-displacement rural lifestyle of many refugees, offering a sense of privacy and cultural continuity [29].

Access to shelters typically begins from the main street, leading through private outdoor spaces before reaching the indoor areas. The circulation layouts rely on the essential connection between indoor spaces and the private outdoor space (the Hawash). This connection is not just physical but also functional and cultural, as the private outdoor space is integral to the cultural background of the residents. It allows for easy movement between those indoor/outdoor spaces, facilitating social interactions and providing a sense of openness, yet is private. The Sibat and Hawsh/Hakoura facilitate smooth transitions and social interactions with close community members. Figure 9 illustrates the functional layout analysis of the shelters included in this study. In the Zaatari camp context, ‘Sibat’ is used to describe a paved front patio or terrace. It serves as a transitional area between the indoors and the outdoors. It can be shaded or unshaded and is typically paved with a concrete screed. Hawsh/Hakoura is a term commonly used in rural regions of Syria, referring to farmland or a garden/farm attached to a house. In the context of the Zaatari camp, it is more than just a private outdoor space. It is a reflection of the pre-displacement rural lifestyle of many refugees, providing a sense of familiarity and comfort in their new environment. This concept is significant in rural areas, where many dwellings integrate agricultural spaces into their living environment [29].

4.1.3. Spatial Recurrent Patterns and the Zaatari Camp Grammar

The common spatial patterns observed in the Zaatari camp include clustered housing arrangements, fenced-in clusters, centralized space configurations, and modular layouts that integrate indoor and outdoor areas. These patterns reflect both functional requirements and cultural influences on spatial design. Figure 10 presents these spatial patterns, which are discussed further in Section 5.

4.2. Qualitative Analysis Results

The analysis of the interviews highlights the complex and multifaceted experiences of refugees in camps. Key themes such as housing and infrastructure, community and social networks, and environment provide an understanding of their adaptation and social and spatial integration processes. These findings reveal that refugees undergo progressive adaptation, including adjusting to new living conditions, maintaining and re-establishing social ties, creating and recreating physical spaces, and finding new economic activities. Social and physical challenges such as social isolation, mental distress, and spatial constraints are also prominent. Figure 11 summarizes the qualitative research codes, categories, sub-categories, and themes extracted from the analysis process.

4.2.1. Housing and Infrastructure

The findings indicate that the layout of shelters and the organization of space within neighborhoods are critical for meeting privacy needs and maintaining cultural references, which are important for the inhabitants’ sense of identity and well-being. Figure 12 shows the most common spatial features of the shelters in the Zaatari camp.

• Shelter and Space

Participants demonstrated resourcefulness in transforming their shelters into more livable spaces despite limited resources. Initially living in tents, households often replaced these with prefabricated units known as “Caravans”. Refugees used available materials such as corrugated sheets and leftover tent fabrics to adapt their shelters creatively. For example, some participants moved their prefabricated units by rolling them on empty cooking gas cylinders or lifting them onto locally made structures with wheels. These solutions illustrate resilience and adaptability in the face of adversity.

Challenges such as strict regulations against permanent construction materials and limited access to resources led participants to employ creative coping mechanisms. One participant utilized the boundaries of existing public structures, like communal kitchens, to establish initial boundaries for their own shelter. Another participant worked for an NGO and used the communal kitchen as a temporary shelter during severe weather, highlighting adaptability and resourcefulness.

Participants expressed preferences regarding the layout of their shelters, emphasizing the importance of spatial organization, layout preferences, and indoor–outdoor relationships to enhance usability. They often created multi-purpose areas due to space limitations, combining living, sleeping, and guest spaces. Participants also valued having their own outdoor spaces, preferring to stay indoors to avoid shared public spaces.

At the neighborhood level, familial relationships influenced neighborhood organization, with some districts being more crowded than others. Many residents chose to live close to relatives, maintaining strong ties within the community. However, overcrowding and inadequate spacing between units led to frustrations, impacting social interactions and overall comfort.

2.

Household Spatial Needs and Preferences

Privacy emerged as a major concern, encompassing both social and spatial levels. Participants highlighted the importance of privacy in relation to gender- and age-related considerations when recreating their shelter spaces. Households with young children prioritized private sleeping areas, while those with older members emphasized gender separation and accommodating extended family.

Privacy needs extended to the neighborhood level, where participants created private outdoor spaces, such as the Sibat, an outdoor veranda surrounded by plants, for family gatherings, as explained by interviewees. The desire for privacy was driven by discomfort with the surrounding community and a need for spatial distancing.

Some participants expressed discomfort with the camp’s diversity, indicating a need to recognize varied experiences within the camp setting. Efforts to recreate aspects of their homes were evident, with residents maintaining cultural practices from their hometowns in Syria such as frequent gatherings with close family members and acquaintances. These practices helped preserve some sort of cultural identity and provide a sense of continuity and normalcy at the smaller community level.

Religious considerations influenced shelter spaces, particularly regarding gender considerations. Participants emphasized the need for separate living spaces due to religious beliefs that command families to separate the sleeping areas of their kids after the age of seven.

4.2.2. Community and Social Networks

• Family/Household Dynamics:

The analysis revealed themes related to family structure, including family gatherings, dynamics, and social connectivity. Family interactions and power dynamics highlighted how members navigate roles and responsibilities. Social connectivity underscored the importance of familial interaction with the broader social network. Camp life affected family dynamics, with an emphasis on self-sufficiency and privacy contrasting with the communal lifestyle in Syria. Isolation and change in the social structure in the camp led to fewer family gatherings and social events, but residents living among relatives maintained a sense of community and familiarity on a smaller community scale.

2.

Community Dynamics

Whenever refugees had family or extended family members, they maintained social networks and support systems despite displacement. Community organization was influenced by extended family dynamics, emphasizing the importance of these relationships. Residents selectively engaged in social activities, prioritizing interactions with people from their own cultural backgrounds and maintaining traditional practices like family meals.

Community changes included decreased social interaction and increased safety concerns, particularly regarding children’s freedom of movement. Cultural practices from Syria, such as family gatherings and community support, were upheld to recreate a sense of home and belonging among relatives and extended community members.

The analysis revealed how refugees maintain social networks and support systems despite being displaced from their homes. The emphasis on visiting and supporting each other during important life events underscores the cultural importance of community solidarity. Despite changes in their social environment, they continue to adhere to cultural norms and values, such as protecting their children and ensuring their socialization within trusted circles

3.

Social Network and Adaptation

Social practices in the camp reflected a desire for interaction with peers, yet challenges related to building and maintaining social relationships persisted. Participants adapted social activities to camp constraints, holding weddings and events within familiar cultural settings.

While participants maintained close relationships with family, they exhibited a lack of trust in the broader community. Micro-community levels showed social solidarity and trust, absent at larger levels. Communication patterns changed, leading to more isolated and introverted social lives.

Social isolation and discomfort with diversity were prevalent, with participants avoiding conflicts and prioritizing family well-being. The lack of shared backgrounds contributed to social isolation and unfamiliarity among neighbors.

4.

Mental Distress and Socio-cultural Change

The analysis revealed social, communal, and cultural changes due to the camp environment. Participants expressed frustration about shifts in gender roles, communal values, and social norms. Mental distress was prevalent, with emotions such as helplessness, anger, anxiety, and fear linked to safety concerns and an uncertain future.

4.2.3. Environment

The impact of climate and weather conditions is a significant factor affecting daily routines and overall comfort, influencing how people adapt their living spaces to cope with environmental challenges. Climate emerged as a significant factor in participants’ narratives. Adaptation to harsh weather conditions was also a challenge for residents as they experienced difficulties with rain and cold, especially when living in tents. This code pertains to how climate conditions impact various aspects of creating more shaded areas, outdoor private spaces, and gathering spaces. One participant stated:

Sometimes, I mean, I place this chair outside; I sit there, and my neighbor comes. We sit and talk, and sometimes, my other neighbors join us! We arrange 3 or 4 chairs, and we sit together! We can either sit in the yard or outside the yard! It is usually cool outside— I mean, if there’s no dust, it’s cool and pleasant! We sit outdoors in the shade! At night, it gets very cold! Yesterday, I wore a jacket to fetch water at night! The water came last night.

One way to mitigate the effect of harsh environments is the households’ effort to make green spaces within the boundaries of their shelters using their previous experience in Syria with self-sustenance through agriculture and planting.

Another environmental challenge that emerged from the analysis is water management, such as the need to secure more storage for water, as it is supplied only at limited times during the week. According to the participants, who came from the fertile agricultural regions of Syria, adjusting to the desert climate of the Zaatari camp proved to be a big challenge. The visible contrast between the agricultural green nature of their hometown and the dry, arid surroundings of the camp proved to be a difficult transition for them.

5. Discussion

Despite limited resources, the residents of Zaatari camp engaged in spatial practices that were socially, culturally, and environmentally driven, enhancing the livability of their physical spaces to the fullest extent possible with the resources available to them. Those spatial patterns were observed during the geometric and functional analysis of the shelter layouts included in this study. This aligns with the broader issues identified in the literature on refugee camps, which often fail to adequately support their residents’ needs due to complex management and limited resources [12,13,22]. Figure 13 illustrates the main research outcomes that are discussed in this section, including the socially and culturally informed spatial practices and adaptation patterns, the environmentally informed spatial practices and adaptation patterns, the Zaatari Camp grammar, and the potential of Construction 4.0 technologies integration.

5.1. Socially and Culturally Informed Spatial Practices and Adaptation Patterns

The social and cultural aspects that significantly influenced the spatial patterns in the Zaatari camp include family size (as large households of five or more members are common), extended family structures and relationships, a preference for independent living, familial networks that assist with housing adjustments, and strong community involvement whenever possible. These elements are consistent with the findings of Tayob [23], who emphasized the importance of social dynamics and cultural significance in shaping spatial arrangements in migrant communities. Residents also strive to create a sense of family through traditional cultural practices and celebrations adapted to the camp environment. A strong attachment to their homeland leads them to replicate aspects of their spatial lives from home. This mirrors Ting’s [31] observations on the ongoing process of homemaking among displaced populations, where familiar practices help recreate a sense of home despite displacement. The most common spatial configurations observed in the camp include clustered housing arrangements, fenced-in housing clusters, centralized space configurations, rectilinear and modular patterns, and integrated indoor–outdoor layouts.

Clustered Arrangements and Fenced-in Housing Clusters: Privacy, both personal and familial, was a primary catalyst for the development of clustered housing arrangements, as shown in Figure 14. This emphasis on privacy is indicative of the need for personal space in refugee settings, as discussed in the literature on refugee architecture [8,9,11,12,13]. Participants emphasized privacy as crucial in shaping their daily lives and interactions, requiring physical separation from neighbors while maintaining proximity to family. Concerns about privacy within and outside the home, coupled with a desire for a strong sense of community primarily among kin, led to the formation of these clustered living patterns. This is consistent with the findings of Paidakaki et al. [17], who noted that harsh conditions in camps often lead to social and cultural isolation.

Based on the social and physical circumstances faced by participants in the camp, there was a strong desire to stay indoors and socially isolate from the broader community. This behavior was likely due to discomfort with the surrounding environment and an attempt to maintain familiarity and security in their living spaces. Additionally, the participants’ pre-displacement rural lifestyle, which was highly family-focused, significantly influenced their experiences and perceptions of the camp’s environment, contributing to their discomfort and desire for isolation. This reflects the broader issues of social equity and livability in refugee camps, as highlighted in the literature [17]. As a result, they consciously attempted to establish micro-communities within the camp that mirrored their pre-displacement rural lifestyle. The spatial configuration of “fenced-in housing clusters,” as depicted in Figure 15, is a clear manifestation of this phenomenon.

Furthermore, the refugees’ tendency to prioritize their families and avoid interaction with the broader community resulted in specific behavioral patterns, including territoriality and a desire for more privacy. This was reflected in their spatial arrangements, with refugees constructing high fences around their shelters and creating large front and backyards enclosed by fences. These yards served as private spaces for families to spend time together without leaving the safety and familiarity of their territory.

Open-to-Inside Centralized Configurations and Rectilinear and Modular Layouts: The shelter units have a rectilinear shape with clear, modular divisions, as seen in Figure 16. This spatial configuration emerged as a response to using the Caravans as core structures, resulting in arrangements that maximize the efficiency of the available space while maintaining a sense of community and personal privacy for inhabitants. This adaptability and expandability are key characteristics of these units, reflecting the need for flexible and culturally respectful designs as emphasized in the literature on refugee architecture [10,16,17,18,19].

Centralized indoor space is primarily utilized as a multi-purpose living area, combining functions such as sleeping, hosting guests, and daily living. The orientation of the housing units takes privacy into account, with entrances often facing away from the direct line of sight of other units or toward the central courtyards. Adaptability and expandability are key characteristics of these units.

Indoor-outdoor-integrated spatial layouts: In the Zaatari camp, the family structure typically includes multiple generations living together, usually within a housing cluster or a micro-community arrangement, reflecting the familial support systems common in many refugee communities. This reflects the importance of extended family structures in maintaining social ties and support networks, as observed in the literature [26,31].The presence of family gatherings and visits underscores the continued effort to preserve social ties and support networks, exemplified by the use of spaces like the Sibat and private indoor and outdoor gathering areas which resulted in the emergence of indoor–outdoor-integrated spatial layouts that can be seen in Figure 17. Interviewees often reflect on their homes in Syria, comparing them to life in the camp, which reveals cultural perceptions of what constitutes a home. There is a clear longing for familiar spaces and community dynamics from their homeland. The mention of extended family members, including children, siblings, and in-laws living nearby or in different districts of the camp, highlights the importance of extended family structures in their culture. These structures provide essential support and a sense of community continuity despite the displacement they have experienced.

5.2. Environmentally Informed Spatial Practices and Adaptation Patterns

Climate and weather conditions significantly impact the daily lives of refugees in the Zaatari camp. The harsh desert climate necessitates creative adaptations to living spaces, such as the creation of shaded and outdoor gathering areas. These adaptations align with the need for environmentally sensitive design solutions highlighted in the literature [17]. Refugees draw on their agricultural experience from Syria to cultivate green spaces within their shelters, providing a sense of familiarity and resilience in the face of environmental challenges.

Water management emerges as a critical issue, with limited supply times necessitating innovative storage solutions. These environmental challenges highlight the need for sustainable design interventions that improve living conditions while respecting the cultural and social preferences of refugee populations. The need for such sustainable and efficient resource management solutions is consistent with the literature’s emphasis on the integration of advanced technologies and sustainable practices in refugee camp design [44,45].

5.3. The Zaatari Camp Grammar

Abu-Aridah et al. [29] developed the Zaatari camp grammar, as shown in Figure 18. The figure illustrates some of the design and shape rules created for this grammar. This grammar, based on shape and contextual analysis, visualizes recurring spatial configurations and identifies the rules governing shelter layouts. It comprises five sets of rules detailing the step-by-step geometric and functional creation of shelters, including the placement of core units, additions of structures, assignment of functions, and installation of windows, doors, and other essential openings. Figure 19 demonstrates some design iterations of the application of these shape rules, highlighting how they guide the design and organization of shelter layouts in the Zaatari camp.

The use of shape grammar to understand and generate spatial configurations aligns with the literature’s discussion on the applicability of shape grammar in refugee camp design [33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43]. The grammar helps create new design iterations based on the studied spatial practices of the camp residents, providing a systematic approach to improving camp layouts and enhancing livability.

5.4. The Potential of Construction 4.0 Technologies Integration

The final step of this study involves integrating the outcomes of the social and spatial analysis with the Zaatari shape grammar into predictive analytics, BIM, and DT technologies. This study developed a four-step framework (shown in Figure 20) that will be transformed into a computational model to integrate social, environmental, and spatial data, as well as shape rules, with BIM and DT technologies. The first step is the data input using the social data that were extracted from the analysis of this research focusing on family size, and cultural preferences, the second step performing the predictive analytics, the third step is data processing and optimization, the fourth step is data integration in BIM, and the last step is data integration in DT. The four steps are as follows:

• Data Input: this step includes identifying input data from social data sources, such as family size, cultural preferences, and environmental conditions.
• Predictive Analysis: This step involves analyzing these data to understand privacy needs, spatial requirements, and community adaptation requirements. The integration of predictive analytics would benefit better allocation of the available limited resources, including construction materials, and access to infrastructure. It can also potentially improve shelter planning by determining the most suitable locations for shelters based on social dynamics, including community cohesion and social networks. Understanding social dynamics would also help camp managers create flexible, adaptive layouts that accommodate changes in population size and the growing needs of residents.
• Data Processing and Optimization: this involves developing three algorithms:
  • Spatial Configurations Algorithm: identifies shelter and neighborhood spatial configurations based on the data input and analysis.
  • Environmental Adaptation Algorithm: identifies environmental needs for shelter creation.
  • Zaatari Camp Grammar Algorithm: identifies shape development requirements and applies shape rules.
• BIM Integration: this comprises four steps:
  • Parametric Design with Revit Families: Involves creating Revit families with parametric shapes that respond to shape grammar rules. Adaptive components in Revit can create complex geometries that adapt based on points, allowing for dynamic shapes.
  • Using Dynamo for Computational Design: Starts with implementing shape grammar rules in Dynamo, a visual programming tool for Revit. Designers can define and manipulate geometry based on rules and parameters. The next step involves automating repetitive tasks, such as generating spatial patterns of shelters or urban layouts, using Dynamo scripts.
  • Design Automation and Iteration: Automates the generation of design alternatives using shape rules. This includes optimization and analysis, combining shape rules with optimization algorithms to find the best design solutions based on specific criteria (e.g., family size, maximizing space usage).
  • Visual Feedback: visualizes and adjusts shape rules in real time, allowing designers to see the impact of different rules on the overall design.
• DT Integration: this comprises four steps:
  • Data Integration and Real-Time Updates: Includes dynamically adjusting shape grammar rules in the Revit model based on data from the physical twin.
  • Predictive Analysis and Simulation: Involves scenario testing, where the digital twin simulates various scenarios using shape grammar rules to predict optimal outcomes and layouts, allowing for testing and refinement before making physical changes on-site.
  • User Feedback: integrates occupant feedback into the digital twin, influencing adjustments to shape grammar rules, such as altering space layouts or environmental controls.
  • Improvement and Optimization: Includes performance monitoring, where the digital twin continuously monitors shelter performance metrics and optimizes shape grammar rules for better performance. It also involves data-driven design iteration, with ongoing data collection and analysis informing future design improvements.

The integration of technologies such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Digital Twins (DTs) into refugee camp design offers significant opportunities for optimizing the design and management of these spaces. As highlighted in the literature [46,47,49,50,52], these technologies enhance the planning, coordination, and real-time management of refugee shelters, making them more adaptable and resilient. The discussion on the application of the Zaatari camp grammar emphasizes the importance of using such tools to create effective and sustainable living environments for displaced populations.

The step of DT integration comprises four steps:

• Data integration and real-time update, including the dynamic adjustment of shape grammar rules: based on the data received from the physical twin, shape grammar rules in the Revit model can be dynamically adjusted.
• Predictive analysis and simulation, which includes scenario testing, as the digital twin can simulate various scenarios using shape grammar rules, such as different configurations of shelter layouts, to predict optimum outcomes and layouts. This allows for testing and refinement before physical changes are made on-site.
• User feedback that incorporates the integration of occupant feedback that can be integrated into the digital twin. This feedback can influence the adjustment of shape grammar rules, such as altering space layouts or environmental controls.
• Improvement and optimization include performance monitoring, in which the digital twin can continuously monitor shelter performance metrics and optimize shape grammar rules for better performance. They also include data-driven design iteration, where the integration of a digital twin allows for ongoing data collection and analysis, informing future design iterations and improvements.

The potential for integrating technologies such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Digital Twins (DTs) into refugee camp design offers opportunities for optimizing the design and management of these spaces. As highlighted in the literature [46,47,49,50,52], these technologies can enhance the planning, coordination, and real-time management of refugee shelters, making them more adaptable and resilient. The discussion on the Zaatari camp grammar’s application underscores the importance of using such tools to create effective and sustainable living environments for displaced populations.

6. Conclusions

This study of the Zaatari camp’s spatial configurations and refugee adaptation strategies highlights the complex interplay between social, cultural, and environmental factors. The findings reveal how residents, despite challenging conditions, employ spatial practices shaped by necessity and cultural continuity, demonstrating their resilience and adaptability. However, the lack of access to advanced expertise and resources could be addressed by integrating Construction 4.0 technologies, which offer the potential to enhance and optimize these practices.

Social and culturally informed spatial practices show that family size, privacy concerns, and community involvement significantly influence the camp’s layout. Residents tend to create clustered housing arrangements and enclosed spaces to maintain family bonds, privacy, and security. These patterns underscore the importance of social and cultural factors in shaping refugee living spaces.

Environmental adaptation also plays a crucial role, with the camp’s harsh desert climate driving the creation of shaded areas, green spaces, and innovative water management practices. These environmentally informed solutions highlight the residents’ resilience and align with sustainable design practices that can improve living conditions.

The introduction of a Zaatari camp grammar provides a framework for understanding recurring spatial configurations and offers design rules for shelter layouts. This grammar enables systematic design generation, contributing to the development of culturally sensitive, adaptable, and livable spaces within the camp.

This study also emphasizes the potential of technological integration, particularly through Construction 4.0 technologies such as Predictive Analytics, Building Information Modeling (BIM), and Digital Twins (DTs). These tools offer significant opportunities for optimizing camp design and management, allowing for real-time data analysis, simulation of shelter configurations, and dynamic adaptation to changing needs. The proposed framework, which includes steps for data analysis, environmental adaptation, and the application of shape grammar rules, can enhance the flexibility and sustainability of refugee shelters.

In conclusion, this study underscores the need for a holistic approach to refugee camp design, one that incorporates both cultural and environmental factors alongside advanced technologies. Such an approach can create more humane, adaptable, and livable spaces for displaced populations, improving their overall well-being in challenging environments.

7. Study Limitations and Future Research

For future research, it is recommended that this research be expanded to other contexts and explored, based on refugees’ socio-cultural preferences and experiences, how they recreate their built environment. Investigating sustainable design interventions to address environmental challenges, such as renewable energy sources and efficient water management systems, is also essential. Moreover, while this study outlines a framework for integrating predictive analytics, BIM, and DT technologies, future research should focus on practical implementation. This involves developing and testing computational models that integrate social, environmental, and spatial data with shape rules, providing real-time feedback and optimization.