Research on the Construction of Sino-Western Fusion Catholic Churches in China: A Case Study of a Catholic Church in Anqing

Abstract

As an early vehicle for the spread of Western architectural culture in China, Catholic churches from the late 19th to the early 20th century exhibited unique Sino-Western fusion characteristics, serving as tangible witnesses to modern cultural encounters. This study focuses on the Anqing Catholic Church as a typical example and systematically analyzes its architectural translation strategies and the generation logic of fusion mechanisms through literature analysis, field research, typological analysis, and comparative research. This study shows that the church, based on the archetypes of Neoclassical and single-tower Gothic churches, constructs a localized translation system through five paths: site selection strategy, form adjustments, element replacement, technical integration, and spatial secularization. Our research further points out that churches with dual archetypes are mainly located in economically prosperous urban centers, with their spatial forms reflecting a fusion mechanism of “sacredness–regionalism–humanism”. While following religious space requirements, these churches adapt to the local environment and foster cultural identification through localized translation, reflecting the diverse perspectives of the architects.

1. Introduction

Catholicism was introduced to China in the late Ming dynasty [1], and after the Opium Wars, as China entered a semi-feudal and semi-colonial society, Catholic missionary organizations rapidly expanded [2]. By 1900, Catholic churches, schools, and charitable institutions had spread across the country, with the number of buildings reaching several thousand. By the time the People’s Republic of China was founded, the number of Catholic churches was approximately 15,000 [3]. As pioneers of Western architectural culture, Catholic churches hold an important place in the modern history of Chinese architecture. Especially in inland regions such as North China, Jiangnan, and Southwest China, many Catholic churches exhibit distinct Sino-Western fusion styles, becoming a testament to the blending of Chinese and Western cultures.

This study took the Anqing Catholic Church, a typical example of Sino-Western fusion architecture, as a case study to explore the intersection of Chinese and Western architectural styles and their localized expression characteristics. Specifically, we analyzed how to balance the integration of Western archetypes with local culture in architectural design, focusing on the fusion process in terms of form, appearance, structural materials, and spatial layout. We also attempted to derive universal design principles from this case. This study provides a theoretical reference for the research and heritage preservation of the Anqing Catholic Church and other similar buildings, offering a theoretical basis for exploring the cultural fusion in early modern Chinese architecture (Figure 1).

2. From Architectural Styles and Types to Multidimensional Thinking on Construction and Mechanisms

2.1. Focus on Stylistic Characteristics

Missionary architecture in China exemplifies a Western architectural intervention in a non-Western cultural context. Especially in the past two decades, architectural historians have sought to characterize the social, esthetic, and political dynamics associated with transferring one architectural culture or technology across another architectural border [4]. Modern church architecture in China has evolved, transitioning from traditional Chinese architectural styles to Western eclecticism and then to Chinese revivalism (a variant of eclecticism in China). In the second half of the 19th century, churches typically adopted Western styles with traditional Chinese decorative details or incorporated components of ancient Chinese architecture. In the early 20th century, many churches used traditional Chinese roof forms, and some even fully adopted ancient Chinese architectural styles [5]. While Western-style Catholic church buildings flourished in treaty ports and large cities, they were generally replaced by locally integrated or assimilated styles in other parts of China [6]. For example, the ruins of St. Paul’s in Macau combine Baroque elements with Eastern pictorial techniques (orientalism) [7]. The Shenyang Catholic Church retains typical Gothic features, but its roofing method follows a purely Chinese folk tradition [8]. Additionally, the chapel of the Datong Seminary is regarded as a prime example of a Sino-Western fusion parish church, ultimately rejecting the Western Gothic style and early missionary ideology [9].

2.2. Categorization of Regional Types

Shaped by the collision of Chinese and Western cultures, Catholic churches in China exhibit diverse architectural styles across regions. Scholars have classified these churches based on factors such as cultural context, historical changes, and socio-economic conditions. Long Bin, studying modern Catholic churches in Chongqing, categorized them into three main types: Western style, Chinese style, and Sino-Western fusion style. The Sino-Western fusion style is particularly common in Chongqing, blending Western modern architecture with traditional Chinese forms to integrate Chinese and Western architectural cultures [10]. Wang Li and Yang Hao classified Catholic churches in Northern Shaanxi into Romanesque, Gothic, and Sino-Western fusion styles. They highlighted the Tanjiaping Church in Jiaxian County as a prime example of Sino-Western fusion, combining Gothic-style pointed arches and bell towers with local cave-dwelling architecture, showcasing regional characteristics [11]. In their study of modern Catholic churches in Guizhou, Zhou Jian and Zheng Lipeng identified five types, focusing on elements like the church’s relation to local residential forms, the prominence of a polygonal altar space, and the design of towering bell towers. They analyzed these types from cultural, economic, and technical perspectives [12]. In his archeological study of 12 Sino-Western fusion churches, Zhang Daiwang conducted typological, chronological, and regional research. However, due to his non-architectural background, his analysis mostly focuses on the superficial aspects of architectural form [13].

2.3. Discussion of Architects and Their Practices

To understand Catholic church architecture in China, one must begin with its historical context. The style and function of these buildings are shaped both by external influences and local social and cultural characteristics. Missionary architecture often represents a compromise between ideals and practical realities, requiring an exploration of the intentions of designers, clients, and builders. The construction process involved collaboration between Jesuit missionaries and local craftsmen, learning new techniques, and adapting designs to local conditions. These structures are not merely buildings; they offer valuable insights into broader cultural and historical contexts [14].

Jeffrey W. Cody, in his study of missionaries and architects who played important roles in Catholic churches and other building projects in China (1911–1949)—such as Henry K. Murphy and J. Walter Taylor—found that they consciously tried to make their buildings appear more “local and less Westernized” on the surface. Since they sought to educate, persuade, and change the beliefs of the Chinese people, they attempted to create cultural resonance through their architecture [15]. Thomas Coomans and Wei Luo have discussed the building practices of the Scheut Fathers in China [16]. Furthermore, Thomas Coomans focused on how missionaries built churches in China from the 1840s to the 1930s. They faced not only issues related to labor, finances, technology, esthetics, and liturgy but also the challenge of dealing with architectural traditions that were fundamentally different from those in the West [17]. In the later period, the Catholic Church abandoned the Western architectural paradigm and shifted to localized practices [18]. At the same time, by incorporating China’s Feng Shui and Confucian philosophy, it was found that these influenced the orientation of churches and led to strict gender divisions in the church’s internal space [19]. Thomas Coomans and Xu Yitao, through their annotations of a 1926 manual on building churches in northern China (compiled by French Jesuit missionaries), discussed and analyzed the practical applications of building materials, masonry, and roofing and how Western construction techniques were passed on to Chinese workers [20,21], showcasing the practical process of Western missionaries constructing churches in China.

2.4. Research on the Translation of Architectural Archetypes

“Archetype” refers to a typical paradigm or fundamental model in architecture, while “translation” is a term that derives from Liang Sicheng’s “Architectural Translatability” theory proposed in the mid-20th century. He drew an analogy with language, describing the architectural combinations of different cultures as “grammar” and viewing specific architectural elements as “vocabulary”. He suggested that “every architectural school, like every language, must have its own unique grammar and vocabulary” [22]. In recent years, some studies have traced the archetypes of Sino-Western fusion Catholic churches, exploring how Western churches rooted themselves in China. By translating the “grammar” and “vocabulary”, these studies explore how different cultural architectural elements can be translated between cultures [23,24].

What about the archetypes of Western Catholic churches during this period? In the 19th century, influenced by religious revival and cultural change, church architecture in France and other European countries underwent exploration through multiple styles, such as Gothic Revival, Roman Revival, and Neoclassicism. Some missionaries were open to multiple styles, and eclecticism was common in church architecture, but others were conservative and believed that only the Gothic style was suitable for global church architecture, promoting its unique national variants [25]. Therefore, Chinese church builders could not only select precise references from a wide range of Western styles but also blend Chinese and Western forms, building types, construction techniques, and decorations [26]. It was assumed that building churches in China primarily involved transplanting a basilica or hall-church type and then streamlining it so local builders could approximate it with available materials and skills [27]. The most common church archetypes in current theoretical research are as follows.

2.4.1. Neoclassical Archetypes

Alberti’s design of the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence (1448–1470), a classic work of architecture, followed the medieval church structure with a higher nave and lower aisles. He used classical architecture, specifically Greek and Roman architectural vocabulary, designing the upper part of the façade in the form of a temple with a triangular pediment and the lower part in the style of a triumphal arch, framed by classical columns and capitals. Between the upper and lower parts, the design incorporated side wing walls decorated with spiral motifs, following the roof’s slope [28]. This work represented a new attempt to construct a Catholic church using classical architectural language, greatly influencing Western architectural history, such as the later famous Jesuit churches in Rome. Lai Delin noted that façade designs with pailou (Chinese gateway) forms in churches such as the Great Saba and the Guizhou Catholic Church were a “translation” of the Jesuit church archetypes, incorporating the traditional pailou as a counterpart to the church façade, creating a form that, while originally a single structure, had a stepped form with two-dimensional characteristics similar to a “façade” [29]. Zhu Youli and Du Shubo discussed how traditional pailous were used as “vocabulary” in the design of the main entrance façade of modern churches in Fujian, realizing the translation between Chinese-style pailous and church façades [30].

2.4.2. Single-Tower Gothic Archetypes

Gothic Revival was particularly prominent in France, aiming to express sacred and transcendent spiritual feelings through rational structure, vertical lines, and elaborate decoration [31]. Auguste Pugin argued that Gothic churches embodied the real principles of the Bible, and he believed that “the bell tower, which constitutes an essential part of church architecture, should not be omitted from the design of parish churches”. Small rural churches in the West, often designed in the single-tower Gothic style, featured bell towers, sanctuaries, and altars as indispensable elements. When resources were limited, they would be built in a simplified form at minimal cost [32]. Pugin’s theory provided the most cost-effective template for church construction in China. The 1926 construction manual listed eight types of churches, all in the single-tower Gothic style. Tang Lizhou and Li Zhen discussed the single-tower Gothic church archetypes and its widespread adaptation in modern Chinese rural church construction, using the case of the Yuankeng Zhen Shentang Church in Fujian. They concluded that the single-tower style was the main approach to constructing local churches in modern Fujian, which incorporated transplantation and translation techniques to align with local cultural traditions and identity [33] (Figure 2).

In conclusion, research on Catholic church architecture in China has mainly focused on coastal cities such as Macau and Fujian and important northern cities such as Beijing and Shanxi. As research has deepened, more scholars have turned their attention to Catholic churches in inland China. These churches often showcase more typical features of Sino-Western fusion architecture, reflecting the influence of Western missionary culture while also highlighting local architectural traditions, becoming an important direction in recent studies. Early scholars primarily focused on architectural form. With the development of architectural research, scholars have gradually turned to multidimensional analyses, offering a comprehensive interpretation of local case studies by integrating cultural, social, and other factors. International scholars, with their unique advantages, have conducted in-depth research on the builders and construction processes, investigating how Western missionaries built churches and their design thinking. In recent years, some domestic scholars have traced the Western archetypes of churches and attempted to summarize their translation mechanisms, which has provided valuable insights for this study.

2.5. Expansion and Innovation

Current research on the Anqing Catholic Church primarily focuses on basic descriptions of the building’s floor plan, orientation, and appearance [34], or presents it as a case study [6], or provides historical narratives of its development [35]. However, these studies mainly emphasize architectural form, often neglecting in-depth analysis of the cultural context and design philosophy.

Therefore, this study examined the cultural interactions and social conflicts that shaped the development of the Anqing Catholic Church, analyzing how it localized and adapted Western church design archetypes. We explored how the design elements of Western religious architecture were integrated with traditional Chinese architecture, highlighting local characteristics in terms of building form, appearance, material structure, and spatial design. Additionally, we delved into the decision-making processes of the missionaries who built the church.

Furthermore, this study not only focused on the case itself but also comparatively analyzed similar examples to further explore the architectural typology of the Anqing Catholic Church. By incorporating interdisciplinary perspectives, such as religious studies and philosophy, we sought to summarize the design and construction mechanisms of Sino-Western fusion churches. This mechanism not only involves the fusion of architectural forms but also includes the interaction of religious symbolism, social culture, and architectural functions. Therefore, this study goes beyond traditional formal analysis, proposing a more comprehensive, interdisciplinary research framework that expands the perspective on the study of Catholic church architecture in China amid the collision of two different cultures.

3. Research Methodology

This study adopted a combination of several methods, including literature analysis, field research, typological analysis, and comparative analysis, as described below.

3.1. Dual-Perspective Literature Analysis

On the one hand, this study examined local perspectives by reviewing local gazetteers and relevant historical archives to explore the historical environment, cultural background, and unique role of the church in the local society at the time of its construction. On the other hand, by incorporating the perspective of the architects, such as the missionaries’ letters, our study conducted an in-depth analysis of how the architectural design of the Anqing Church responded to the religious propagation needs of the time and the missionaries’ ideological pursuits.

3.2. Field Research Combining Surveys and Interviews

This study conducted field research at the Anqing Catholic Church and other typical Sino-Western fusion Catholic churches to collect first-hand data. Furthermore, precise measurements of the Anqing Catholic Church were taken, and architectural drawings were produced to support subsequent analysis. In addition, interviews with the church’s priests, local residents, and scholars from archeological institutes provided further insights into the church’s architectural history, cultural background, and local characteristics.

3.3. Typological Analysis of Archetypes Translations

This study identifies the “Neoclassical church” as the archetype for Chinese pailou style churches and the “single-tower Gothic church” as a common form in rural Chinese churches. It finds these two archetypes reflected in the Anqing Catholic Church, prompting further research.

Localization of archetypes: The study refines the typical features of these archetypes and analyzes the local characteristics of the Anqing Catholic Church and surrounding buildings through “architectural translatability”. It explores the methods of archetype localization in form, appearance, structure, and layout, revealing the underlying causes.

Typological classification: This study classifies churches with “Neoclassical” and “single-tower Gothic” features, analyzing their evolutionary traits, distribution, and local adaptations, with a particular emphasis on the distinctive nature of the Anqing Catholic Church, which combines both archetypes.

3.4. Comparative Analysis of Similar Cases

This section compares the Anqing Catholic Church with other churches that integrate two archetypes. It examines differences in site selection, materials, structure, spatial layout, and how these churches adapt to religious, cultural, and functional needs, extracting guiding principles for Sino-Western fusion church architecture.

4. Background of the Construction of the Anqing Catholic Church

4.1. The Spread of Catholicism and Church Construction

Anqing is located in a strategic position along the Yangtze River in Anhui Province. As a key political and cultural center, it played a significant role in the spread of religion in modern China. After the 19th century, when the national ban on Catholicism was lifted, the Paris Foreign Missions Society entered Anqing along the Yangtze River from Shanghai, gradually making it a key base for missionary activities.

Initially, due to strict local management, officials like Li Hongzhang prohibited missionaries from establishing residences for evangelism in the city [36]. After the Taiping Rebellion’s defeat, missionary Xiong Chenyao was tasked with establishing a new mission in Anqing. He initially disguised his mission by purchasing private houses under the cover of running a cloth shop, which later became a church. As the number of followers grew, the church acquired houses at low prices to build more churches and mission buildings. Although these buildings were small, their number was large, and they blended into the surrounding residential architecture, only marked by Chinese-style plaques indicating their religious purpose.

After the Anqing Church case, two French priests, Xu Tingbo (Prosper Leboucq) and Du Ruolan (Marin Desjacques), were sent to Anqing to discuss “compensating church property”. Bishop Lei Yujun, in charge of the Nanjing and Anqing dioceses, was also pressured to act. In October 1867, the government returned the houses purchased by Xiong Chenyao to the church as a hospital and allocated several acres of land along the river as compensation. Due to the original site’s poor location, the church was granted “12 rooms of the East Right Fang residential area” in the city center and the right to build a church on this land [37]. According to the “History of Missionary Activities in Jiangnan”, “On May 5, everything was settled, and he obtained an ideal piece of land. The church, school, and hospital have all been built” [38]. This church became the Anqing Catholic Church.

In 1948, the Anqing Diocese became one of the 20 archdioceses in China, with the archbishop’s residence located in the Anqing Catholic Church. As the cathedral of the archdiocese, the Anqing Catholic Church is large in scale and high in rank, making it an important piece of historical architectural heritage. In 2019, the church was listed as a national key cultural heritage unit, representing a fusion of Chinese and Western architectural styles and encapsulating the essence of such church architecture and techniques.

4.2. Local Vocabulary in Anqing’s Architecture

Anqing’s residential houses from the Ming and Qing dynasties are well known for their strategic location, with families living in clusters that combine Hui-style and northern architectural elements. Floor plans are symmetrical, usually adopting a courtyard-style layout. These structures are made of blue brick and wood, with meticulous carving techniques. For example, the Zhao Puchu Residence, built in the early Ming dynasty and adjacent to the Anqing Catholic Church, faces south and features elegant blue brick walls. Its horse-head walls rise and fall rhythmically. The main building is a brick-and-wood structure with a rectangular floor plan, divided into east and west axes, comprising seven courtyards and five courtyards. The architectural style blends the grandeur and ruggedness of northern buildings with the meticulous and delicate craftsmanship of Hui-style architecture. Anqing’s pailous, many of which date back to the Ming dynasty, were originally constructed to honor achievements and display virtue. For instance, the Daoba Lion Pailou and Qian Pailou are within a kilometer of the Anqing Catholic Church at street entrances. Both are four-column, three-gate pailous made of white marble. The craftsmanship and decorative patterns of these pailous are exquisite (Figure 3).

5. Results

5.1. Selecting the Building Site

5.1.1. Facilitating Missionary Work and Quick Transportation

According to the “History of Catholic Missions in Jiangnan”, “The vast Yangtze River stretches from Anqing to Jiangkou within the Jiangnan province. For many years, priests have relied on this waterway to travel along both banks of the Yangtze River and the Grand Canal” [38]. Water routes served as the primary missionary channels, so riverfront plots often became the missionaries’ first choice. However, due to the proximity to the river, flooding could occur, so missionaries had to understand the summer water levels in detail to avoid choosing low-lying flood-prone areas. The Anqing Catholic Church site is less than one kilometer from the river and the ferry terminal, and the land is relatively high.

5.1.2. Central Location, Convergence, and Connectivity

A cathedral should be a symbol of the diocese, the most prominent sign of the Catholic Church in the public urban space. People come to it for pilgrimage, hoping that God will bless them. The church should be open to the city and capable of accommodating hundreds or thousands of believers for religious ceremonies. The Anqing Catholic Church is located at the intersection of Xiaosu Road and Xilin Street in the city center, making it easily accessible for the congregation. It also symbolizes “convergence” and “connection”, aligning with the propagation concept of Catholicism.

5.1.3. Cultural Intervention and Safety Concerns

As an invasive foreign culture, Catholicism inevitably collided with or was rejected by the local culture. Additionally, with frequent church-related incidents, there was a strong demand for safety. The Anqing church was built next to a residence, allowing priests to quickly take refuge in case of danger and seek protection from local authorities. The riverfront location also minimized the likelihood of sudden attacks during missionary activities and provided the possibility of naval support. There is a record of this: “The ’Santa Maria’ ship arrived at Anqing, and Father Lei dared not enter the city through the city gate, fearing an attack by mobs. He climbed the city wall through a cannon port, where a sedan chair was waiting for him on the other side of the wall, and Father Lei sat in it and proceeded directly to the doctor’s residence” [37] (Figure 4).

5.2. Adjustments of the Plan Shape

Due to the frequent missionary incidents, the Anqing Catholic Church separated the main church hall from the priest’s residence for security reasons. The compensation from these incidents provided enough funding to place the priest’s residence as an independent building next to the church, creating a more flexible floor plan. The main church hall has its entrance on the south side, following the traditional Chinese architectural concept of facing south, with the hall facing the sun and the river. However, it adopts a Western Latin cross plan, where a transverse wing space is added perpendicular to the rectangular main hall to accommodate more complex religious ceremonies. This plan met the needs of the cathedral. However, compared with the traditional Latin cross, the side wings of the church are broader and more centered, weakening the symbolic meaning of the “cross” and creating a more symmetrical and balanced plan. Instead of curved walls and small circular niches at the rear, a simpler rectangular wall was constructed.

Additionally, the interior of a traditional Latin cross-shaped church often features a noticeable difference in column spacing, and the side aisles are narrow. An altar is set at the intersection of the main hall and the side wings, surrounded by four sturdy columns to reinforce the sacred space. By contrast, the Anqing Catholic Church’s interior, due to the use of beam and column structures, has a more even and regular column layout, with little variation in column spacing. The overall structure retains the wide central nave and narrow side aisles typical of the traditional design (Figure 5).

5.3. Substitution of Façade Elements

A prominent difference between Western and Chinese architecture is that the former emphasizes the façade, while the latter emphasizes the side elevation or section. In fact, the concept of a façade does not exist in traditional Chinese architecture [39]. The Anqing church features a stone base platform, with its main façade designed in a pailou style form, with three bays and seven-layered horse-head wall. The church’s pailou-like structure inevitably evokes the image of missionaries directly replacing the new classical façade with the surrounding forms of the Daoba Lion Pailou and Qian Pailou. First, the entire pailou frame is convex in shape, with three openings at the entrance, and vertically divided into three sections, which meet the original new classical façade composition of base, body, and eaves. Additionally, the stone-carved corbel brackets on the church’s eaves imitate wooden structures, and the top is decorated with fish-tail motifs, making it resemble a traditional pailou. Furthermore, above the pailou, the Anqing Catholic Church features a tower derived from the Gothic bell tower archetype. The tower has arch-column structures on all four sides and is decorated with Hui-style carvings on the eaves. The overall structure is a Chinese-style, four-corner, spire-topped pavilion made of stone, visually prominent in the surrounding area, and integrates the pailou and bell tower organically (Figure 6).

The Anqing Catholic Church also features Romanesque arch doors and windows, with columns subtly recessed on the doors. An old photograph shows that the central door of the church initially had a rectangular Chinese-style form, with exquisite floral and bird stone carvings on the outer frame. The church’s arch doors are also adorned with stone lintels, presenting a mid-high, low-side shape that harmonizes with the overall design. The stone inscription on the lintels not only serves as a marker but also functions as a “protective talisman”, with a cross at the top indicating that this is a Western-style church (Figure 7).

5.4. Construction Technique Integration

The interior of the church adopts an 11-purlin, three-step beam structure with a pointed ridge, using large materials to support the heavy, gray-tiled roof above. The joints of the components are connected using mortise and tenon joinery. To align with the Latin cross-shaped plan, two vertical wooden frames are used for the connection. The local craftsmen cleverly employed the Chinese timber framing system to match the Western architectural layout, demonstrating the coordination between architecture and structure. Additionally, a “heaven-and-earth bolt” component is used between the framework and the walls to enhance the overall integrity and earthquake resistance of the building.

The walls were constructed using blue bricks, employing the “inside–outside brick” method, with “one smooth, one upright” plum-blossom-style bricklaying commonly seen in Ming dynasty architecture. This method enhances wall connectivity but requires more bricks. To save costs, the walls were generally built with horizontal bricks, with their larger surfaces facing up and the long sides exposed. This “plum-blossom” bricklaying technique is also known abroad as “Gothic” or “Dutch style”, commonly used in medieval church walls [40]. When building, the craftsmen use traditional Chinese grouting techniques, in which mortar is poured into the gaps between bricks before laying the next layer, creating an economical yet sturdy wall. Additionally, an alkaline-resistant layer is placed on the ground, using grass paper or mats coated with asphalt to prevent moisture. The asphalt is a Western material brought by the missionaries (Figure 8 and Figure 9 and

Table 1. Building framework load-bearing analysis.

	Chinese-Style Beam–Column Wooden Frame Structure	Western-Style Brick Wall–Truss Frame Structure	Brick–Wood Mixed Frame Structure of the Anqing Church
Vertical Load
	Column bearing	Wall bearing	Column bearing
Roof Load
	Beam–column bearing	Truss and wall bearing	Beam–column bearing

).

Since the walls do not directly bear the roof and floor loads, larger door and window openings can be created. The church’s doors and windows feature Romanesque semicircular arches, constructed with upright bricks to highlight the solemnity and harmony of the façade. The entrance connecting the main hall and the priest’s residence adopts a traditional Chinese lintel method, creating a classical arch form. Wall columns are built on both sides of the door, with bricks laid upright to form a semicircular arch resting on the columns, while the interior is constructed with side-laid bricks, with a round carved design in the center. The door opening integrates structural and decorative elements, blending Western style with Chinese construction (Figure 10).

5.5. Secularization of Spatial Expression

The Anqing Catholic Church retains the sacred path emphasized in French churches, with large arched windows on the east and west walls featuring red diamond-shaped church patterns on a white background. Inside, two rows of red-painted wooden pillars with petal-patterned stone bases are arranged. The church’s ceiling replaces the continuous vaulted cross-roof with a wooden grid ceiling, which significantly softens the towering spatial scale typically seen in Western churches, creating a more intimate and inviting atmosphere.

The religious statues are placed at the end of the sacred path. Instead of a Gothic rose window, warm yellow and white lighting is used to highlight the statue as the visual focal point. A wooden four-cornered pavilion is constructed above the statue, elevating the altar and incorporating gilded wooden carvings in the form of “hejing pavilion” at the roof’s junction with the main hall, symbolizing the boundary between humanity and divinity.

The overall brightness and openness of the church’s interior reflect the Chinese characteristic of seeking both light and faith, in contrast to the darker, more atmospheric spaces typically found in Western churches, which emphasize the greatness of the divine. The use of Chinese-style carvings to highlight the sacred space and convey theological ideas creatively merges the spatial concepts and elements of both Chinese and Western architecture, constructing a space for worship without emphasizing a mysterious or somber atmosphere (Figure 11).

6. Discussion

The Anqing Catholic Church embodies typical elements of a neoclassical façade: a single-tower Gothic bell tower, a sanctuary, and an altar. To some extent, it can be seen as a compromise between these two archetypes, reflecting their translation and local adaptation in various aspects of the church’s construction. The two archetypes present in the Anqing Catholic Church are not unique to it but are widely used in churches that combine Eastern and Western styles. However, in actual construction, these archetypes have been continuously reinterpreted by local craftsmen, generally falling into three categories: the “pailou style”, derived from the neoclassical façade; the “single tower style”, stemming from the single tower Gothic design; and the “pailou–single tower style”, which combines the two archetypes.

Of these, the pailou style, which often incorporates elements from southern Jiangnan traditional architecture such as the horse-head wall, is more commonly seen in the southern regions; the single-tower style, due to its economic practicality, is mainly found in rural areas [34]. With its complex design, the pailou–single tower style is generally found in regions where the Catholic Church has a stronger presence and greater financial resources and is more commonly located in economically prosperous urban centers [12] (

Table 2. Typical types of Sino-Western fusion Catholic church architecture.

Archetypes	Neoclassical	Single Tower Gothic	Neoclassical; Single Tower Gothic
Derivative	Pailou Style	Single Tower Style	Pailou–Single Tower Style
Illustration
Typical Case	Suzhou Yangjia Bridge Church, 1892; Chongzhou Church, 1891; Zunyi Yangliu Street Church, 1897	Datong Xubao Church, 1931; Moxi Catholic Church, 1918; Cizhong Catholic Church, 1921	Guiyang North Catholic Church, 1874; Anqing Catholic Church, 1893; Dali Catholic Church, 1927
Distribution	Rural; urban	Mainly distributed in rural areas	Mainly distributed in urban areas

).

The pailou–single tower style church merges two architectural archetypes and can be regarded as a concentrated expression of the typical features of churches combining Eastern and Western styles. This study selected the North Church in Guiyang and the Catholic church in Dali as case studies, as they are renowned for their exquisite craftsmanship and historical value. By comparing these churches in terms of orientation and layout, the expression of external space, the translation of typical elements, the use of structural materials, and the treatment of detailed decorations, this study revealed the commonalities and differences between these churches in different regional environments (

Table 3. Pailou–Single Tower Style of Sino-Western fusion Catholic church architecture.

Case	Anqing Catholic Church	Guiyang North Catholic Church	Dali Catholic Church
Illustration
Orientation	Facing south (facing the Yangtze River)	Facing west (back to the mountain)	Facing west (back to water and facing mountain)
Plan	Latin cross	Basilica	Basilica
Pailou	Brick-built, three-bay, seven-layered horse-head wall	Brick-built, three-bay, seven-layered horse-head wall	Brick–wood mixed, three-layered water pattern
Bell Tower	Brick-built, four-faced archway, imitation wooden spire	Wooden structure, four-tiered eaves, hexagonal spire	Wooden structure, four-cornered spire
Combination	Pediment and bell tower combined	Pediment and bell tower separated	Pediment and bell tower combined
Structure	Combination of tie beam and purlin	Three-bay Gothic pointed arch	Combination of tie beam and purlin
Space	Central hall and two side aisles	Central hall and two side aisles	Central hall and two side aisles
Doors and Windows	Roman-style arched door, arched windows	Rectangular door opening with Gothic pointed arch door, colored glass round window, pointed arch windows	Archway with columns, Roman arched windows, Chinese-style surrounding windows
Details	Stone–wood bracket, doorframe couplets, ridge beast roof tiles	Couplets, lintels, ridge beast, colored paintings depicting flowers and birds	Heavy eaves brackets, flower panels, ridge beast roof tiles, ethnic Bai colored paintings and carvings

). Our research shows that these churches adhere to sacred religious functions and spatial requirements yet adapt to local environmental conditions in their specific construction practices. At the same time, they reflect the diverse architectural philosophies and choices of different missionaries, the human agents of construction. This can be summarized as the philosophical interaction mechanism of the “sacredness–regionalism–humanism” trinity. This comparison helps to explore the underlying “sacredness–regionalism–humanism” integration mechanism in churches that combine Eastern and Western elements, as demonstrated in the table below (Table 3).

6.1. Adherence to the “Humanism–Sacredness” Relationship

The layout and interior design of church buildings strictly follow religious regulations. The inclusion of a bell tower, for instance, reflects a respect for sacred space. Unlike traditional Chinese architecture, which typically follows a longer, front-facing, shallower depth layout, Western churches adopt a longitudinal arrangement, typically a Latin cross or basilica form, with high central halls and side aisles, effectively dividing the space for religious rituals. Additionally, the vertical tower structure of a bell tower breaks the skyline of the surrounding traditional dwellings. Although this may disrupt the feng shui of the area, it remains a key element of religious buildings, used to symbolize the sacred nature of the space.

6.2. Selection of the “Humanism–Regionalism” Relationship

The orientation, structural form, key elements, and materials of churches are deeply influenced by local environments and culture. In terms of orientation, most church buildings follow traditional Chinese feng shui principles, such as the north-facing layout to adapt to the environment, while a few adhere to Western traditions, such as the altar facing east and the entrance facing west. This is evident in the Dali Catholic Church, which faces Cangshan and backs onto Erhai Lake, differing from the orientation of the surrounding dwellings, which follow the Chinese “back-mountain, facing-water” principle. Some church structural designs draw from traditional Chinese wooden beam framework, such as the “raised beam framework” with a large spatial span, while other parts experiment with Western architectural styles. For example, the Guiyang North Church features a three-bay Gothic vaulted roof but lacks the transverse bracing typically found in either Chinese or Western designs, resulting in an unstable load-bearing system. This reflects the limited understanding of Western architectural systems by Chinese craftsmen at the time [41].

In the translation of typical elements, the pailou façade replaces the neoclassical façade with Chinese elements, such as the horse-head wall which is commonly found in southern China. The Dali Catholic Church uniquely incorporates the Bai ethnic group’s gatehouse design, characterized by its three-tiered, water-like form. The bell tower, a distinctive feature, is often reinterpreted as a Chinese pavilion or tower, featuring a single eave or multiple eaves with a four-cornered, sharply pointed roof. For instance, the Guiyang North Church has a four-tiered, six-cornered bell tower with a spire.

6.3. Integration of “Humanism–Humanism” Relationships

Church decorations, patterns, and symbols often blend Chinese and Western cultural elements. A church may feature Western architectural elements such as pointed arches, rose windows, and brickwork, as well as Chinese-style painted carvings, door lintels, and dougong brackets. For example, the entrance of the Dali Catholic Church has three large arched doors supported by two spiral marble columns, with complex carvings and colorful painted designs on the beams. These decorations not only demonstrate the esthetic qualities of traditional Chinese architecture but also incorporate the symbolic significance of Western religious architecture, highlighting the elegance and grandeur that distinguishes urban churches from rural ones.

7. Conclusions

As a typical example of the integration of modern Chinese and Western architectural cultures, the Anqing Catholic Church demonstrates multi-layered complexity in its construction logic and formal characteristics.

• In terms of architectural archetypes, the regular proportions of Neoclassicism and the iconic single-tower Gothic style form a unique collage. This dual-style choice was influenced by the eclectic architectural trends of 19th-century Europe and reflects the church’s reliance on the economic strength of treaty port cities to achieve complex construction. Similar stylistic combinations can be found in cathedrals in cities like Dali and Guizhou.
• Archetype translation: Located in a convenient transportation hub along a river, the church follows the feng shui principle of facing south. It adopts the Latin cross plan but incorporates a symmetrical Chinese layout, translating the archetypes through surrounding Chinese elements such as pailou and pavilions with pointed roofs. The structure combines Chinese post-and-lintel wooden frames with Western arches and asphalt materials, creating a bright and comfortable interior space for the sacred path of worship.
• Construction philosophy: As the central hub of the Catholic mission network in the region, despite having access to abundant resources, the church is situated in an urban environment marked by social tensions. Although the identity of the builders remains unknown, it can be inferred from the city’s social dynamics and existing physical evidence that the missionaries integrated Chinese elements into the design to connect with the local context. For instance, some missionaries promoted the use of Chinese motifs to convey religious themes and advocated for incorporating traditional Chinese architectural styles in Catholic buildings, aiming to make the church more relatable to the local population [42].
• Integration mechanism: The sacredness of religion is preserved by maintaining the basic scale of the Mass space, while regional adaptability is reflected in compromises with local climate characteristics and building material systems. The humanistic strategy is revealed in the subtle interplay between the missionaries’ personal preferences and the craftsmen’s skills in decorative details. This dynamic balance of “sacredness–regionalism–humanism” ensures that the architecture neither completely submits to Western archetypes nor fully localizes. Instead, it becomes a material witness to the cultural collision of this historical period, embodied in the juxtaposition of arches and dougong brackets, as well as the overlapping of religious icons and traditional patterns.