The Emerging Role of Environmental Cadmium Exposure in Prostate Cancer Progression
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Methodology, Literature Review, and Study Selection Criteria
1.2. Epidemiological Studies
- A.
- Population Studies:
- 1.
- Studies that found an association between Cd exposure and PCa outcome:
- i.
- The earliest evidence for the link between Cd and PCa outcome was documented in occupational populations in 1965 when Potts noticed three out of eight deaths among battery plant workers were due to PCa [25]. This finding set the foundation for epidemiological studies addressing the link between Cd exposure and PCa mortality in battery plant workers.
- ii.
- A study demonstrated that death from PCa was borderline higher in men who had Cd exposure in male residents of Japan’s contaminated Jinzu River basin [8].
- iii.
- Our recent study addressing the role of environmental Cd exposure and PCa progression showed that air Cd exposure was associated with higher PCa pathological grade and metastasis at the time of diagnosis in nonmetropolitan, urban areas in the United States [26]. In this article, we pointed out that signs of tumor aggressiveness at the time of diagnosis are more reliable tumor aggressiveness measures than mortality because mortality may depend more on comorbidities attributable to high Cd, disparities in treatment modalities, and access to medical care.
- iv.
- In 2022, another study showed that cumulative 3- and 5-year average concentrations of air Cd are linked to lower PCa survival in a 78,914 PCa population from Pennsylvania [27].
- v.
- Cheung et al. in 2014 attempted to evaluate the NHAHES III dataset for the association between urinary cadmium (U-Cd) and PCa mortality [20]. While the univariate analysis demonstrated an association between U-Cd and PCa mortality, the multivariate analysis lacked statistical significance. They attributed this discrepancy to confounding factors and the few cancer deaths in the population studied.
- vi.
- Bryś et al. demonstrated an association between increased tissue Cd levels in PCa and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) compared to normal tissues [22]. Notably, they reported a decrease in zinc levels in PCa as compared to normal tissues.
- vii.
- Feustel et al. demonstrated a similar pattern in Cd and zinc levels in benign and tumor prostate tissues [28].
- viii.
- To address this question, our group addressed the association between Cd levels in normal-appearing prostate tissue adjacent to cancer and biochemical recurrence after prostatectomy. The data showed that patients in the highest quartile of Cd levels in the normal-appearing area of the prostate have a higher risk of biochemical recurrence [23], favoring the hypothesis that Cd overburden preceded PCa.
- ix.
- In 2023, Tyagi et al. published a study that showed increased cadmium levels in prostate cancer tissues as compared to normal adjacent tissues [24].
- 2.
- Studies that did not report an association between Cd exposure and PCa outcome:
- i.
- The Strong Heart Study in American Indians reported a non-significant inverse association between U-Cd levels and PCa mortality [21]. This study had a prospective design and long-term follow-up.
- 3.
- Studies that showed a trend for increased PCa mortality:
- i.
- Another study by Elinder et al. in 1985 showed a non-statistically significant increase in mortality among workers in a Swedish Cd-Nickel battery factory as defined by standardized mortality ratio (SMR) [30].
- ii.
- In 1979, a study conducted on 269 Cd-Nickel factory workers and 94 Cd-Copper factory workers found a non-statistically significant increase in PCa mortality [31].
- 4.
- Limitations and Strengths of Population/Epidemiological Studies:
- B.
- Meta-analysis Studies:
- C.
- Future directions for epidemiological studies:
1.3. Experimental Evidence
- 1.
- Current Standing of in vitro studies:
- 2.
- Limitations and Future Directions for Experimental Studies:
2. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Exposure Mode | Cells Lines | Cd Doses (µM) | Effects | Mechanisms | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acute | 1LN prostate cells | 0.5 µM–1 µM | ↑ Cell proliferation | ↑ p-MEK1/2, ↑ p-ERK1/2, ↑ p-p38, ↑ p-MAPK, ↑ p-JNK, ↑ p-Akt, and ↑ NFκB | [41] |
Acute | PC-3 and DU-145 | 10 µM, 20 µM, and 30 µM | ↑ Sensitivity of cells to TNFσ-mediated apoptosis | ↓ XIAP | [42] |
Chronic | PC-3 and DU145 | 0.5 and 2 µM (three months) | ↑ Cell migration and ↑ invasion | ↑ EMT, ↑ Smad3, ↑ metal metalloproteinase 2, ↓ E-cadherin, and ↑ vimentin, ↑ ER stress, and ↑ ROS | [43] |
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Saad, R.; Hussein, M.A.; Munirathinam, G.; Kajdacsy-Balla, A. The Emerging Role of Environmental Cadmium Exposure in Prostate Cancer Progression. Environments 2024, 11, 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11080181
Saad R, Hussein MA, Munirathinam G, Kajdacsy-Balla A. The Emerging Role of Environmental Cadmium Exposure in Prostate Cancer Progression. Environments. 2024; 11(8):181. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11080181
Chicago/Turabian StyleSaad, Rama, Mohamed Ali Hussein, Gnanasekar Munirathinam, and André Kajdacsy-Balla. 2024. "The Emerging Role of Environmental Cadmium Exposure in Prostate Cancer Progression" Environments 11, no. 8: 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11080181