Strategies for 3D Modelling of Buildings from Airborne Laser Scanner and Photogrammetric Data Based on Free-Form and Model-Driven Methods: The Case Study of the Old Town Centre of Bordeaux (France)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Case Study
2.2. Dataset
- Pulse repetition frequency up to 700 KHz;
- Return pulses programmable up to 15 returns, including intensity, pulse width, area;
- Under curve and skewness waveform attributes;
- Full waveform recording option at down-sampled rates;
- Oblique scanner, with various scan patterns;
- Real time LiDAR waveform analysis, including waveform attribute capture.
2.3. Data-Driven Free-Form Modelling
2.3.1. Phase 1: Extraction and Regularisation of Contour Lines
- Conversion of the contour line into a mesh plane (projection dimension: Z) where the contour line determines the edges of the output triangles (CloudCompare: Contour plot (polylines) to mesh—Figure 8b);
- Creation of a flat point cloud from the mesh surface (CloudCompare: Sample points on a mesh—Figure 8c);
- Extraction of a new regularised contour line from the flat point cloud (CloudCompare: Cross Section—Figure 8d).
2.3.2. Phase 2: Creation of the “Dummy” Point Cloud
2.3.3. Phase 3: Generation of the Mesh Model
2.4. Model-Driven Modelling
- Segmentation based on DSM;
- Segmentation based on the point cloud;
- Automatic segmentation based on nadir images;
- Segmented building footprint from OpenStreetMap—OSM;
- Segmentation based on the OSM features;
- Interactive segmentation based on nadir images.
- Building footprint correction based on DSM (3D Basemaps: Modify Roof Tools);
- Parametric correction of the roofs through the modification of one or more fields of the attributes table (RoofForm, RoofDirAdjust, BldgHeight, EaveHeight).
3. Results
4. Discussion
- Regularisation of the roof contour lines by conversion into a mesh plane, in phase 1;
- Production of a “dummy” point cloud segmented according to the surveyed façades, in phase 2;
- Quad-mesh simplification as the preferred method for simplifying 3D models, in phase 3.
5. Conclusions
- Modelling buildings with any kind of shape using a parametric method;
- The possibility of choosing which building façades to model and which to reconstruct;
- To build photorealistic 3D models through the use of hybrid sensors;
- To obtain light and manageable 3D models without loss of accuracy and precision.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix B
Model | Original Building | Formal Result | Mean C2M [m] | Standard Deviation C2M [m] |
---|---|---|---|---|
D.S.1 | | | 0.029 | 0.334 |
D.S.2 | | | 0.098 | 0.351 |
D.S.3 | + | | 0.088 | 0.651 |
D.S.4 | | | 0.008 | 0.252 |
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Modelling Type | Model | Formal Result | Mean C2M [m] | Standard Deviation C2M [m] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Data-driven free-form | Tri-mesh | | 0.066 | 0.612 |
Quad-mesh | | 0.058 | 0.664 | |
Model-driven | Model 1 (Segmented footprint based on DSM) | | 1.254 | 1.725 |
Model 2 (Segmented footprint based on the point cloud) | | 0.237 | 0.813 | |
Model 3 (footprint automatically segmented according to nadir image) | | 0.174 | 0.603 | |
Model 4 (OSM footprint) | | 0.240 | 1.200 | |
Model 5 (OSM segmented footprint) | | 0.266 | 1.040 | |
Model 6 (footprint segmented interactively based on nadir image) | | 0.127 | 0.767 | |
Model 7 (interactive editing of the footprint and roof) | | 0.008 | 0.567 |
Model | Vertices [n.] | Faces [n.] | Dimension [kB] |
---|---|---|---|
Triangular mesh | 405,944 | 701,396 | 14,852 |
Quadrangular mesh | 25,556 | 50,166 | 1012 |
Simplification rate | 93.70 % | 92.85 % | 93.19 % |
Method | Model | Mean C2M [m] |
---|---|---|
Free-form modelling by Song et al., 2020 | I | 0.2749 |
II | 0.2777 | |
III | 0.3312 | |
IV | 0.3495 | |
V | 0.1745 | |
Free-form modelling proposed | Tri-mesh | 0.066 |
Quad-mesh | 0.058 | |
D.S.1 | 0.029 | |
D.S.2 | 0.098 | |
D.S.3 | 0.088 | |
D.S.4 | 0.008 |
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Costantino, D.; Vozza, G.; Alfio, V.S.; Pepe, M. Strategies for 3D Modelling of Buildings from Airborne Laser Scanner and Photogrammetric Data Based on Free-Form and Model-Driven Methods: The Case Study of the Old Town Centre of Bordeaux (France). Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10993. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210993
Costantino D, Vozza G, Alfio VS, Pepe M. Strategies for 3D Modelling of Buildings from Airborne Laser Scanner and Photogrammetric Data Based on Free-Form and Model-Driven Methods: The Case Study of the Old Town Centre of Bordeaux (France). Applied Sciences. 2021; 11(22):10993. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210993
Chicago/Turabian StyleCostantino, Domenica, Gabriele Vozza, Vincenzo Saverio Alfio, and Massimiliano Pepe. 2021. "Strategies for 3D Modelling of Buildings from Airborne Laser Scanner and Photogrammetric Data Based on Free-Form and Model-Driven Methods: The Case Study of the Old Town Centre of Bordeaux (France)" Applied Sciences 11, no. 22: 10993. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210993