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Article

Shear Strength Improvement of Clay Soil Stabilized by Coffee Husk Ash

by
Reza Pahlevi Munirwan
1,2,
Mohd Raihan Taha
1,
Aizat Mohd Taib
1,* and
Munirwansyah Munirwansyah
2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(11), 5542; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12115542
Submission received: 9 May 2022 / Revised: 17 May 2022 / Accepted: 17 May 2022 / Published: 30 May 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Finding alternatives to natural resources is important for a sustainable future and is essential to infrastructure projects. Among these replacements is the use of coffee waste as soil stabilizers. Coffee husk ash (CHA) is a solid waste obtained by the processing of coffee beans on a farm or factory. The main aim of this study is to determine the geotechnical properties of clay soil treated with CHA to develop a low-cost, environmentally friendly alternative composition. Laboratory tests were conducted to investigate the influence of CHA on the physical properties and the mechanical properties of clay. The CHA concentration was adjusted from 5% to 25% by the dry weight of clay in 5% increments. The clay classification of the mixture becomes coarser following the addition of the CHA. At 25% CHA, a peak UCS of 130.83 kN/m2 was measured compared with the untreated clay of 89.17 kN/m2. In addition, the cohesion values and internal friction angles of soil for 0% and 25% CHA increased from 80.1 kN/m2 to 148.7 kN/m2 and from 16.1° to 25.8°, respectively. It was found that CHA can improve the strength of clay by forming a pozzolanic and hydration process that fills soil voids and binds particles together.

1. Introduction

Natural soils, especially clay soil, usually lack the mechanical and geotechnical properties required for construction projects and, hence, require treatment to achieve geotechnically acceptable conditions [1,2]. Clay soils present some difficulties for geotechnical and civil engineers due to their weak strength, high sensitivity to moisture, and excessive swelling. Moreover, when clay soils are found above the groundwater table, it becomes problematic because it swells with an increase in moisture content and shrinks with a reduction in moisture content. In addition, significant changes in groundwater occur when rainfall lasts for a long period [3,4]. Due to their intrinsic mineralogical behavior, these types of soils are well-known for their volume change behavior in response to moisture changes. Expansion of the soil results in cracks and structural failures, which include expansion in the pavements, fissures in the floors and walls, and distortions in the window and door frames [5]. Soil swelling causes cracks and construction collapse depending on the level of swelling; these distortions might be slight, moderate, or serious [6].
Waste disposal is becoming a major concern for the majority of countries around the world. The massive generation of these byproducts is producing environmental and financial difficulties [7,8,9]. In general, it is preferable to recycle waste materials rather than to allow them to decompose into the environment [10]. To limit their environmental impact, the utilization of these wastes as soil stabilization can be an excellent solution.
To accomplish this goal, one strategy is to alter the physical and mechanical parameters of the clay soil using what are recognized as soil stabilization techniques [11,12,13,14,15]. The most notable approaches for resolving undesired soil behaviors and enhancing clay soil parameters include compaction, reinforcement, and additive stabilization [2,16,17]. Furthermore, the requirement to use locally sourced materials, to have low costs, and to make technological advancements have increased the competitiveness of soil-additive treatment [18,19,20,21,22]. Additionally, engineers can now use nanoscale stabilizers as additives to enhance the properties of soils as a result of technological advancements [14,23,24,25,26,27]. The unique characteristics of these nanomaterials are due to the number of molecules and atoms present on their free surface, and the consequences that this has on the surface properties from the perspectives of physical, chemical, and reactivity considerations are evident [28].
Lime and cement are the most regularly applied additives in the building and road construction industry for unstable clay soil stabilization [16,29,30,31]. However, conventional cementitious stabilizers such as cement are being questioned not only for their negative impact on the environment during manufacturing but also for their high costs [32]. From a geotechnical viewpoint, these ground improvements based on soil–cement and lime mixtures are related to the following basic reactions: flocculation, particle agglomeration, cation exchange, pozzolan reaction, and carbonation [33]. In reality, engineering properties can be rapidly improved by adding small amounts of lime or cement to clay soils. However, the effectiveness of this treatment is dependent on both the amount of addition used and the mineral content of the soil.
The use of locally sourced materials is necessary for sustainable and cost-effective construction projects such as buildings, roads, and trains. Over the last couple of years, substantial research has been conducted on the use of agricultural waste in the manufacture of sustainable construction products. Due to the proper geotechnical and mineralogical analysis of waste materials as well as their interaction with soil, large-scale application is conceivable [11,34,35]. One of the waste materials in question is the byproduct of the coffee industry. Even though coffee husk, for example, has a variety of commercial uses, it is often discarded in surrounding landfills due to a lack of appropriate rules and technical specifications for the use in underdeveloped countries. There is no equivalent market need for the coffee husk that is now in use, which results in disposal issues. The majority of coffee husks are merely landfilled or burnt, leading to a waste of resources and degradation of the environment [36]. This improper disposal of coffee husks has a negative effect on the environment, such as land degradation and water bodies contamination, which harms human health [37]. As a result, it is critical to develop sustainable alternative solutions for utilizing this waste to increase cleaner production in the coffee industry.
Few efforts have been conducted recently to evaluate coffee husk ash (CHA), a byproduct of the coffee husk burning process, for its possible application as a geomaterial [22,38,39]. Accordingly, the general aims of this current research are to clarify the effect of CHA on the geotechnical behavior of clay soil and to study the interacting process. Theoretically, the high concentration of potassium and silica in CHA may contribute to the pozzolanic reactions that occur during hydration and result in the formation of cementitious composites, as mentioned in previous research [22]. These chemicals are responsible for enhancing the soil engineering properties, which improve with the period as the pozzolanic process continues [40]. The CHA revolution in civil engineering has garnered considerable interest, owing to its availability and cheap commercial value.
In general, research on the stabilization of clay soils with CHA is rather limited. In the last five years, only black cotton soil has been stabilized using coffee husk ashes [22,38,40]. Hence, the novelty of the study is the use of high plasticity tropical clay (CH), which has never been studied before. The specific objective of this study is to determine the effect of CHA application as an agricultural and industrial waste on the clay soil geotechnical properties. Various geotechnical laboratory experiments were conducted to establish the physical properties (Atterberg limits and standard Proctor compaction test), and the mechanical properties (UCS and direct shear tests) of the CHA–soil mixture. Insights are established concerning the effect of CHA content on clay soil as well as the practicability of waste material for use as a geomaterial for construction.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Clay Soil

The clay soil used for this investigation was collected from Paya Kameng, Aceh Besar District, Aceh Province-Indonesia as in Figure 1. The sample collecting pit was located at coordinates 05°32′37.0320″ N, 95°30′02.6280″ E. It is located approximately 30 km east of Banda Aceh, the capital city of Aceh Province. The chemical composition of clay soil was measured by utilizing gravimetric, titrimetric, and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) methods, as shown in Table 1. Silica is a major component in the chemical composition of the soil.
The clay soil was initially stored outside the laboratory to dry naturally and then placed inside an oven for 24 h to completely dry. To prevent temperature influences on the soil characteristics [41], the-oven drying temperature was maintained at 100–110 °C. Following that, the dried clay was filtered through a 4.75 mm sieve to obtain a homogeneous sample. Figure 2 illustrates the grain size distribution of the clay. The ASTM D422-63 standard [42] was used to determine the grain size distribution of the clay. The grain size distribution, which included sieve analysis and hydrometer measurements, revealed that the sample has a consistent size distribution. Soil is composed of particles of clay (56.9%), silt (32.4%), and sand (10.7%). Table 2 presents the physical parameter of untreated clay. The liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), and plasticity index (PI) of natural clay are 70.90, 27.77, and 43.13%, respectively. According to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), the clay soil is classified as a high plastic clay (CH) and A-7-6 according to AASHTO, which may be considered an expansive clay soil.

2.2. Coffee Husk Ash

Indonesia holds an important place as the fourth biggest coffee exporter in the world, behind Brazil, Colombia, and Vietnam, supplying 11% (600,000 tons) of the world’s coffee each year [43]. The primary production areas are Sumatra, Java, and Sulawesi islands, which differ in terms of processing methods and variety of production [44]. Aceh Province, located on Sumatra Island, is one of the coffee-growing provinces in Indonesia, which accounts for 28.23% of national coffee production [43]. Additionally, around 80% of all coffee planted in Aceh, Indonesia, is in Takengon, Central Aceh [44]. Takengon is well-known for the Gayo Mountain Coffee, which is grown on the hills at an altitude range of 1100–1300 m above sea level [44].
The coffee husk is considered an agricultural waste product of coffee production [45,46,47,48]. The coffee husk employed in this study was obtained from farms and factories around the Takengon area and then burned for 3–4 h to obtain the ash. Subsequently, the dried CHA was ground powder and sieved using a 2 mm sieve to remove suspended solids. Potassium oxide, silica, iron oxide, and phosphor pentoxide are major components in the mineral compositions of CHA (Table 3). Prior studies have documented a similar range of percentages for CHA’s chemical composition [22,37,49]. Typical CHA micromorphology is shown in Figure 3 by using SEM and TEM images. The texture of CHA is corrugated, and the grains are jagged, crushed, modular, and rough, which is suitable as a stabilizing agent.

2.3. Sample Preparation

A series of laboratory tests were performed to identify the physical and mechanical parameters of clay. All laboratory tests were carried out under ASTM standards to establish the geotechnical properties. The preparation of samples is one of the most important procedures in every experimental research project. After room temperature drying at a temperature of 30–35 °C, the clay was ground into a powder and sieved through a 4.75 mm sieve. The clay and CHA were mixed and homogenized for ten minutes. To obtain the optimal amount of CHA for soil stabilization, the CHA concentration was adjusted from 5% to 25% by the dry weight of clay in 5% increments.

2.4. Testing Procedures

2.4.1. Atterberg Limit and Standard Proctor

The Atterberg limit tests were performed on treated and untreated clay according to the ASTM 4318-17 standard [51]. The plasticity characteristics of treated and untreated clays are illustrated using index properties such as LL, PL, and PI. Furthermore, the standard Proctor compaction tests were carried out on samples following the ASTM D698-12 standard [52] to obtain the MDD and OMC of each sample. The clay and various percentages of CHA were mixed in the dry condition to achieve a uniform color, and then, water was added accordingly. The combinations of clay, CHA, and water were properly combined and squeezed by hand until homogeneous. Following mixing, specimens were sealed in a sealed plastic bag and held at room temperature for several hours to create a homogeneous moisture content.
Later, the specimens were compacted in three layers of 25 blows each with a 2.5 kg rammer dropped from 30.5 cm. Compaction experiments were conducted at a moisture content of 36.3% (the OMC for untreated soil) for all clay and CHA combinations, and the MDD and OMC were determined to be 1220 kg/m3 and 36.3%, respectively.

2.4.2. Unconfined Compression Test

An unconfined compression test (UCS) experiment series was performed on untreated and treated clay samples at CHA percentages varying from 5% to 25%. A homogenous mixture of clay with distilled water was arranged and stored for 24 h in an airtight bag. Then, the resulting mixture was compacted using static compression equipment to have a specimen ready for tests. To maximize strength, samples were produced at the OMC determined during the compaction test. The UCS test was performed according to the ASTM D2166 Standard [53] at a rate of 1 mm/min until the sample failed.

2.4.3. Direct Shear

Direct shear experiments were used to obtain the shear characteristics for various mixture clay–CHA combinations. These experiments were conducted at OMC. Moreover, direct shear parameters can be used to design various types of earthen structures and to determine the bearing capacity of the soil foundation [54]. In order to achieve the specified MDD, a plain sample and mixtures of CHA–soil samples were made. The specimens were made in the shear box directly. The direct shear tests on identical samples were performed according to ASTM D3080 Standard [55] under varying normal loads to determine the cohesion and internal friction angle of shear parameters.

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Physical Properties Test

The influence of CHA on the clay consistency limits was investigated by determining the Atterberg limits of the CHA–clay soil. The Atterberg limits give evidence of the number of clay particles present in the soil [56]. Higher PI and LL values mean that the soil has a greater tendency to swell and shrink in response to changes in soil moisture content. The Atterberg limit measurements are displayed in Figure 4. The LL is between 67.0 and 70.9%, while the PL is between 27.77 and 32.42%, resulting in a decrease in the PI of between 34.58 and 43.13%.
The concentration of CHA improved the PL of the stabilized clay and reduced the LL. Generally, a decrease in the LL of clay indicates a decrease in the clay swelling characteristics [11]. Additionally, an improved plastic limit is probably caused by a reduction in the thickness of the diffused double layer of clay soil particles, which later increases the shearing resistance [57]. The combined alterations in the LL and PL resulted in a decrease in the soil PI with an increase in the CHA concentration. The reduction in the PI was greater with higher concentrations of CHA. The decrease in PI may indicate that the clay was deformed during CHA stabilization [1].
The plasticity chart in Figure 5 illustrates how the addition of CHA changes the morphology of soil grain. Figure 5a,b illustrate the plot of PI to LL used to classify clay samples according to the AASHTO and USCS methods, respectively. As the percentage of stabilizing agent applied to clay increased, the specimens moved downward and to the left from a high compressibility area to a low compressibility. Moreover, the treated samples started to shift from clay to silt soil. The overall variations in the consistency limits of stabilized clay resulted in a shift in soil classification from CH to MH and from A-7-6 to A-7-5 for the USCS and AASHTO methods, respectively. The observed results indicate that CHA stabilization caused the clay particles to form into bigger aggregates, resulting in their change to silt size particles [58]. This will probably result in a decrease in the swelling capacity of clay when exposed to water intrusion due to precipitation [1].
Figure 6 shows the results of the specific gravity test in which it is found that the soil specific gravity reduces as the CHA concentration increases. The results indicated that the specific gravity of CHA-treated soil decreased from 2.670 to 2.571, 2.531, 2.515, 2.501, and 2.486 for 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%, respectively. Specific gravity decreases can be attributed to lightweight material matter in soils as well as soil decomposition. The specific gravity of a particle is proportional to the mass. Moreover, this result is predicted given the low specific gravity of CHA. Materials with a low specific gravity are subject to degradation and property changes over time. Because specific gravity is a ratio of solid density to water density, the denser the substance, the larger the specific gravity [59]. Thus, the trend in the specific gravity indicated that the incorporation of substitute agents such as CHA can lower the soil specific gravity, indicating that it is a decent option for usage as a stabilizing agent in expansive soil.

3.2. Compaction Test

The MDD–water content plots for the CHA-treated clay are presented in Figure 7. In general, the MDD of soil samples enhanced with CHA was always above the dry unit weight of their original state. Increasing the CHA percentage to 25% improved the MDD of clay marginally by approximately 3%.
The increase in MDD of clay can be possibly related to agglomeration and flocculation of the clay particles, which resulted in quick cation exchange in the CHA–clay mixture. Moreover, higher dry density results in increased particle interlocking. In addition, the increase in MDD of the clay is attributable to the improved gradation of clay as a result of the addition of CHA, as was previously found. On the other hand, the OMC of treated clay decreased marginally as the CHA concentration increased. The CHA addition appears to have decreased the water solubility of the soil, resulting in a decrease in the OMC [35]. Previous researchers have also reported an increase in MDD and a decrease in OMC when CHA is added [40,60].

3.3. UCS Result

The relationship between stress and axial strain for soil–CHA mixture subjected to various CHA ratios is presented in Figure 8. Untreated samples of soil treated with varying concentrations of CHA exhibit peak stress at relatively low peak strains. Initially, the stress increases rapidly as the strain increases, until it reaches the maximum value. Upon reaching a peak, it declines with increasing strain in both CHA-treated and untreated soils. Additionally, as indicated by a decline in the axial strain, the CHA–clay mixture becomes more brittle [61].
Figure 9 demonstrated that the compressive stress of the clay soil improves constantly as the CHA concentration increases up to 25% from 89.17 to 130.83 kN/m2. As previously mentioned, the improvement in UCS value can be attributed to the soil–CHA hydration and pozzolanic reaction, which fills the void space and binds the particles together, hence increasing the strength of the soil.
Furthermore, the UCS value increases could also be attributed to the cementitious property of CHA, which further helps in the soil matrix solidification, hence boosting strength [62]. Additionally, the increased UCS value of CHA-treated clay can be related to the decrease in the clay minerals’ negative surface area and the subsequent emergence of stable aggregation [63].

3.4. Direct Shear Result

The clay internal friction angle and cohesion are obtained using the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion based on the ultimate shear strengths of the soil at three vertical stress scenarios. Figure 10 illustrates the shear strength envelop of the Mohr–Coulomb criteria for natural soil and CHA-based composite soils. This figure demonstrates that shear stress rises correspondingly to normal stress, and the slope of the curve remains constant as the CHA content increases.
Figure 11 illustrates the CHA influence on cohesiveness and frictional angle as the percent ash content increases. The angle of friction and cohesion of the treated clay can be used in geotechnical engineering to determine the stability and strength of this modified soil. The value of cohesiveness is observed to steadily increase from 80.1 kN/m2 to 148.7 kN/m2 with the addition of CHA. The angle of friction has a similar trend, gradually increasing from 16.1° to 25.8° upon CHA addition. The soil cohesion is proportional to the force that holds particles together. Water increases the bonding force immediately. However, this cohesion increase is limited. When the moisture content of the soil is excessive, there is more filtration distributed among the particles, which may reduce cohesiveness. Moreover, increased cohesiveness is a result of certain soil minerals transforming into clay minerals during decomposition [60]. Furthermore, the increase in friction angle can be attributed to the flocculation of soil particles caused by the addition of a micro-level of CHA, which resulted in filling the space between soil particles and a pozzolanic reaction that led to higher friction angle values. The clay soil becomes coarser following the addition of the CHA.

4. Conclusions

Due to the important nature of implementing a green eco-friendly strategy and a cleaner technology approach, the novel use of CHA in clay soil stabilization was examined. Stabilization of CHA in the clay soil significantly enhances the soil engineering properties, including their physical, and mechanical performance. This research indicates that CHA is not only cost-effective and practical in construction but also an approach to accomplishing sustainability and addressing climate change and environmental challenges. CHA can replace cement, lime, and other materials in green construction. The following summarizes the key findings from the investigation conducted in this article:
  • The principal mineral components of CHA are potassium oxide, silica, iron oxide, and phosphor pentoxide.
  • The liquid limit, plasticity index, and optimum water content all decrease as the CHA content increases; however, the plastic limit and maximum dry density increase.
  • According to soil classification, following the addition of the CHA, the clay soil turns to be coarser.
  • With the addition of CHA content, the OMC decrease and the MDD increase.
  • The optimal concentration of CHA for improving the shear strength of clay soil is 25%.
  • Increased mechanical properties of soil can be related to the pozzolanic and hydration reaction between CHA and soil, which fills void space and binds the particles together, hence increasing the performance of the soil.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.R.T., A.M.T. and M.M.; methodology, R.P.M. and M.R.T.; validation, M.R.T., A.M.T. and M.M.; resources, R.P.M.; writing—original draft preparation, R.P.M.; funding acquisition, A.M.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia under the research grant number GUP-2021-022.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 12 05542 g001 550
Figure 1. Soil sample location map of Aceh Province—Indonesia.
Figure 1. Soil sample location map of Aceh Province—Indonesia.
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Applsci 12 05542 g002 550
Figure 2. Grain size distribution of the untreated clay.
Figure 2. Grain size distribution of the untreated clay.
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Applsci 12 05542 g003 550
Figure 3. CHA micromorphology: (a) SEM magnified at 10 m and (b) TEM of CHA magnified at 50 nm [50].
Figure 3. CHA micromorphology: (a) SEM magnified at 10 m and (b) TEM of CHA magnified at 50 nm [50].
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Applsci 12 05542 g004 550
Figure 4. Atterberg limit of the clay–CHA mixture.
Figure 4. Atterberg limit of the clay–CHA mixture.
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Figure 5. PI-LL for untreated and treated samples using the plasticity charts of AASHTO (a) and USCS (b).
Figure 5. PI-LL for untreated and treated samples using the plasticity charts of AASHTO (a) and USCS (b).
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Figure 6. The specific gravity of the clay–CHA mixture.
Figure 6. The specific gravity of the clay–CHA mixture.
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Figure 7. Compaction parameter of the clay–CHA mixture.
Figure 7. Compaction parameter of the clay–CHA mixture.
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Figure 8. Stress–strain of soil–CHA mixture.
Figure 8. Stress–strain of soil–CHA mixture.
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Figure 9. UCS of clay–CHA mixture.
Figure 9. UCS of clay–CHA mixture.
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Figure 10. Direct shear failure envelope of the clay–CHA mixture.
Figure 10. Direct shear failure envelope of the clay–CHA mixture.
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Figure 11. Shear strength of the soil–CHA mixture.
Figure 11. Shear strength of the soil–CHA mixture.
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Table
Table 1. Chemical composition (%) of the dry untreated clay.
Table 1. Chemical composition (%) of the dry untreated clay.
SiO2Al2O3Fe2O3CaOMgONa2OK2OMnOP2O5LOI
42.995.632.673.011.690.050.100.030.281.50
Table
Table 2. Physical characteristics of untreated clay.
Table 2. Physical characteristics of untreated clay.
PropertiesSymbolValue
Liquid Limit (%)LL70.90
Plastic Limit (%)PL27.77
Plasticity Index (%)PI43.13
Soil Classification:
USCS CH
AASHTO A-7-6
Maximum Dry Density (kg/m3)MDD1220
Optimum Moisture Content (%)OMC36.3
Specific GravityGs2.67
Table
Table 3. Chemical composition (%) of the dry CHA.
Table 3. Chemical composition (%) of the dry CHA.
SiO2Al2O3Fe2O3CaOMgONa2OK2OMnOP2O5LOI
8.300.045.105.221.030.0360.090.054.982.83
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Munirwan, R.P.; Taha, M.R.; Mohd Taib, A.; Munirwansyah, M. Shear Strength Improvement of Clay Soil Stabilized by Coffee Husk Ash. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5542. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12115542

AMA Style

Munirwan RP, Taha MR, Mohd Taib A, Munirwansyah M. Shear Strength Improvement of Clay Soil Stabilized by Coffee Husk Ash. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(11):5542. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12115542

Chicago/Turabian Style

Munirwan, Reza Pahlevi, Mohd Raihan Taha, Aizat Mohd Taib, and Munirwansyah Munirwansyah. 2022. "Shear Strength Improvement of Clay Soil Stabilized by Coffee Husk Ash" Applied Sciences 12, no. 11: 5542. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12115542

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