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Article

Fatty Acid Content, Lipid Quality Indices, and Mineral Composition of Cow Milk and Yogurts Produced with Different Starter Cultures Enriched with Bifidobacterium bifidum

by
Beata Paszczyk
* and
Elżbieta Tońska
Department of Commodity and Food Analysis, Faculty of Food Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(13), 6558; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136558
Submission received: 9 May 2022 / Revised: 24 June 2022 / Accepted: 26 June 2022 / Published: 28 June 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Microbes in Agriculture and Food)
Browse Figure
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Abstract

:
This study aimed to analyze the composition of fatty acids, with particular emphasis on the content of cis9trans11 C18:2 (CLA) acid, the content of minerals, and lipid quality indices in raw milk, pasteurized milk, and in yogurts produced with selected starter cultures enriched with Bifidobacterium bifidum. The GC-FID method was used to determine the fatty acid composition of those dairy products. To analyze the contents of microelements (copper, manganese, iron, and zinc) and macroelements (magnesium, calcium) flame atomic absorption spectrometry was used. The content of phosphorus was determined with the usage of the colorimetric method and the contents of sodium and potassium with emission method. Data analysis showed that such technologies as milk pasteurization and milk fermentation had a significant impact on the fatty acid profile and contents of micro- and macroelements. The lipid quality indices: atherogenicity index (AI), index thrombogenicity (TI), hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic index (H/H), and (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio, were at similar levels in raw and pasteurized milk and yogurts produced. Starter culture type affected the content of cis-9, trans-11 CLA C18:2 acid in yogurts. Out of the starter cultures applied in the study, only the FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex starter culture with BB-12 caused a significant (p < 0.05) increase in CLA content. The CLA content of the yogurts produced using this starter culture was 2.67 mg/g fat. In raw milk, pasteurized milk, and the second batch of yogurts, the content of cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 acid was significantly lower and reached 2.26 mg/g fat, 2.17 mg/g fat, and 2.30 mg/g fat, respectively. The study indicated that, when it comes to being a source of minerals, yogurts were better than milk. Yogurts were also characterized by significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of all micro- and macroelements taken into account in this study than the raw milk used to produce them.

1. Introduction

Milk and dairy products are recognized as food products of high nutritional and dietary value [1]. They are important sources of energy, high-quality protein, fats, lactose, micro- and macro-elements, and vitamins and enzymes that ensure normal human growth and development as well as vital functions of the body [2]. Mineral components affect metabolic transformations and chemical reactions, and are also involved in the normal body development and functions. Their content is determined by various factors, including condition of the natural environment or animal feeding system, both of which influence the quality of raw material and dairy products made of it [3,4,5]. Milk and dairy products represent good sources of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P), which are necessary for bone growth development and metabolism [6,7]. Milk fat, both in terms of its dispersion and fatty acid composition, plays an important role in developing the taste and consistency of yogurts. The composition of milk fatty acids (FA) elicits multiple effects on the quality of milk and dairy products, including their physical properties and nutritional value (e.g., effects on human health). Different fatty acids, such as short- and medium-chain saturated, branched, mono- and polyunsaturated, cis and trans, and conjugated linoleic acid cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 (CLA) present in ruminant milk fat can potentially have positive or negative influence on consumer health [8,9]. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), including butyric acid (C4:0), are known modulators of gene function and may also play a certain role in cancer prevention. Fatty acids C8:0 and C10:0 may exhibit antiviral activities [10], while branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA) have been shown to elicit anti-cancer effects [11,12]. In turn, oleic acid (cis9 C18:1), the most common MUFA in milk fat, has been demonstrated to increase the activity of low-density lipoprotein receptors and to decrease the cholesterol concentration in serum [13]. Trans-vaccenic acid, which is the main trans C18:1 isomer in milk fat, is said to have anti-cancer and anti-atherogenic effects [14]. Research has shown that n–3 PUFAs can be helpful in heart disease prevention as well as improvement of the immune response, whereas linolenic acid (C18:3) is said to exhibit anti-carcinogenic and anti-atherogenic properties [15,16]. In turn, (n − 6) PUFAs have been reported to improve sensitivity to insulin and thus reduce the incidence of type 2 diabetes [17]. Finally, the cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 acid (CLA) has been proven to display multiple health-promoting properties [18,19,20,21,22].
It is widely accepted that excessive intake of C12:0, C14:0, and C16:0 saturated fatty acids (SFAs), which account for approximately 70% of the total fatty acids in milk fat, are unhealthy [16,23]. However, the matrix in which these SFAs are contained may elicit positive health outcomes. As proven by recent research, several dairy matrix components, such as calcium, peptides, phosphorus, and the milk fat globule membrane, are able to modify blood lipid responses to SFA intake [24,25]. The fatty acid profile has an impact on the nutritional quality of milk and dairy products. In order to assess the nutritional value of a diet and determine whether it has a positive effect on consumer health, the proportions of individual fatty acids are broadly examined, including desirable fatty acids (DFA), hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic index (H/H), atherogenicity index (AI) and thrombogenicity index (TI), and (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio.
The contents of all the previously mentioned milk constituents, such as fatty acids and minerals, may differ from their contents in dairy products. Research results indicate that these differences may be due to various factors used in the technological process, such as heat treatment, homogenization or pasteurization, standardization [26,27,28,29,30], fermentation, starter culture type, fermentation time, and storage time and conditions [31,32,33,34,35,36]. High nutritional value of yogurts and other fermented milk drinks is highly influenced by the quality of milk and the production process used, as well as the possible increase in their bioavailability due to the fermentation process. Yogurt is one of the best-known foods containing probiotics [37,38]. It is defined as a coagulated milk product that results from lactic acid fermentation in milk by Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus [39]. The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) used in the yogurt production are microorganisms that are involved in the traditional fermentation process. Other lactic acid bacteria (LAB) species are now frequently used to impart unique characteristics to the final product. Thus, a carefully selected mixture of LAB species is used to complement each other and to achieve a remarkable efficiency in acid production. In order to ensure good conditions for effective milk fermentation and to obtain the right quality of yogurt, you can use special mixtures of starter cultures available on the market. These mixtures contain several strains of lactic acid bacteria with acid-forming, protective, and organoleptic properties, which ensure the proper process of milk fermentation. As research indicates that certain strains of the genus Bifidobacterium are capable of converting CLA isomers (cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 and trans-10, cis-12 C18:2) from the linoleic acid (LA) present in milk, there is an increase of new probiotic strains available on the market [40,41,42,43,44,45]. Bifidobacterium have many beneficial properties, including production of lactic and acetic acids, which results in a positive lowering of the pH in the human digestive tract [40,42]. Research on the ability of probiotic Bifidobacterium to biosynthesize CLA may afford new possibilities for improving the functional properties of food through the microbiologically-promoted increase in the amount of health-promoting components [40,45].
Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the composition of fatty acids, with particular emphasis on the content of cis9trans11 C18:2 (CLA) acid, the content of minerals, and lipid quality indices in raw milk, pasteurized milk, and in yogurts produced with selected starter cultures enriched with Bifidobacterium bifidum.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The research material was milk and yogurts produced using selected starter cultures enriched with Bifidobacterium bifidum. The raw material for the production of yogurts covered by the study was cows’ collective milk, which is a mixture of milk from many cows of different breeds (about 45 cows, including 50% Simmental cows and 50% of a mixture of Polish Red and Simmental breeds). The milk was collected from individual producers with farms located in Warmia and Mazury. The milk was purchased in January, it came from cows fed with the cowshed method. The cows were fed with their own production of haylage and maize silage (70–80% of the ration) and, triticale, rye, and oat sharps. Additionally, the cows received 1.5 to 2 kg of concentrate for dairy cows. The milk was delivered in a tank to the Technology Hall. Four portions of milk were taken from the delivered milk for the production of yogurts. Two portions of milk were inoculated with the culture starter FD-DVS YC-180 Yo-Flex with BB-12 containing Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis, Streptococcus thermophiles, and Bifidobacterium bifidum (Chr. Hansen, Hørsholm, Denmark), and the two were inoculated with culture YC-X16 and BB-12 containing Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Streptococcus thermophilus, and Bifidobacterium bifidum (Chr. Hansen, Hørsholm, Denmark). Analyses were carried out for raw milk, pasteurized milk prepared for the production of yogurts, and manufactured yogurts. The yogurts used for the analyses were produced by the thermostatic method. The production process included the following stages: first, the raw milk was heated to 45 °C, then subjected to a centrifugation and degassing process (80 kPa; 60 °C). The milk prepared in this way was then pasteurized using the HTST method (72 °C/15 s; ALFA-LAVAL P20-HB pasteurizer, Lund, Sweden) and left to cool down to the temperature of 6 °C (ALFA-LAVAL P20-HB pasteurizer, Lund, Sweden). After the completion of the cooling process, skim milk was added to the milk to standardize the fat content to 2 ± 0.1%. The material was then homogenized in a two-stage process (18/5 MPa, 65 °C; CN003 homogenizer, Spomasz Bełżyce, Poland) and then pasteurized in a long-term VHT (Very High Temperature) pasteurization (90 °C/5 min; ALFA-LAVAL P20-HB pasteurizer, Lund, Sweden). The milk was then cooled to 45 °C and inoculated with selected starter cultures (powder form) that were pre-incubated for 2 h at 45 °C in the amount of 1 mL/L of milk. After the production process was completed, the yogurts were packaged into unit-size containers and left to mature in thermostats (Binder GF115, Tuttingen, Germany) for approximately 4 h at the temperature of 43.5 °C, until they reached pH 4.6. Four samples of yogurts from each production process and each batch were collected for analyses. In total, sixteen samples of yogurt were collected, and their analyses were conducted in two parallel replications.

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Fat Extraction

The Roese-Gottlieb method was used to extract fat from raw and pasteurized milk [46]. The Folch method was used for the extraction of fat from yogurts [47].

2.2.2. Preparation of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters

The IDF standard method (ISO 15884:2002) was used in the process of converting fatty acids into their corresponding fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) [48].

2.2.3. Analysis of Fatty Acid Composition by GC Method

The composition of fatty acids was determined with the gas chromatography method using a HP 6890 GC System (Münster, Germany) with a flame-ionization detector (FID) was used. A capillary column with a length of 100 m and internal diameter of 0.25 mm was used; the liquid phase was CP Sil 88 (Chrompack, Middelburg, the Netherlands), and the film thickness was 0.2 μm. The analysis was carried out in the following conditions: column temperature from 60 °C (for 1 min) to 180 °C (∆t = 5 °C/min), detector temperature 250 °C, injector temperature was 225 °C, helium was carrier gas (gas flow 1.5 mL/min). The sample injection volume was 0.4 µL (split mode 50:1). The comparison of the retention times of fatty acids with the retention times of methyl esters of fatty acids of reference milk fat (BCR Reference Materials) of CRM 164 symbol and literature data were used to identify fatty acids present in analyzed products [49,50,51]. A mixture of CLA methyl esters (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) was used to identify the cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer. The standards of methyl esters (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) were used for the identification of the positional trans isomers of C18:1, whereas the trans isomers of C18:2 acid (cis, trans and trans, cis) were identified with the use of a mixture of standards of C18:2 isomers (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA). Contents of fatty acids were calculated in mg/g fat with respect to the introduced standard (methyl ester of C21:0 acid, Sigma-Aldrich, Germany).

2.2.4. The Lipid Quality Indices

The following formulae was used to calculate the hypocholesterolemic fatty acids (DFA) [52]:
DFA = UFA + C18:0
Index of Hypercholesterolemic fatty acids (OFA)
OFA = C12:0 + C14:0 + C16:0
The AI and TI Indices were calculated using the following model [23,53]:
Index of Atherogenicity (AI):
AI = (C12:0 + (4 × C14:0) + C16:0)/((n − 3) PUFAs + (n − 6) PUFAs + MUFAs)
Index of Thrombogenicity (TI):
TI = (C14:0 + C16:0 + C18:0)/((0.5 × C18:1) + (0.5 × sum of other MUFAs) + 0.5 × (n − 6) PUFAs) + (3 × (n − 3) PUFAs) + (n − 3) PUFAs/(n − 6) PUFAs
H/H ratio (hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic) was calculated using the following model by Ivanova and Hadzhinikolova [54]:
H/H = (C18:1(n − 9) + C18:2(n − 6) + C18:3(n − 3))/(C12:0 + C14:0 + C16:0)

2.3. Mineral Analysis

The milk and yogurt samples were dried at 105 °C to determine the presence of minerals. Then, the dried samples were subjected to the carbonization process and incinerated at the temperature of 480 °C for several hours. The white ash, obtained after the mineralization process, was dissolved in 1 M HNO3, (Suprapur-Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) and transferred into a 25-mL volumetric flask using deionized water. Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (acetylene—air flame) using a Thermo iCE 3000 Series (Madison, WI, USA) with a Glite data station, background correction (deuterium lamp), and appropriate cathode lamps was used to determine the contents of copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca). Lanthanum chloride (0.5% La3+) was added for calcium determination. The determination of selected elements was performed at the following wavelengths: 324.8 nm (Cu), 279.5 nm (Mn), 248.3 nm (Fe), 213.9 nm (Zn), 285.2 nm (Mg), and 422.7 nm (Ca). The emission technique (acetylene-air flame) was applied for the identification of the concentrations of sodium and potassium. An atomic absorption spectrometer Thermo iCE 3000 Series (Waltham, MA, USA), equipped with a Glite data station, operating in an emission system was used to perform the analyses. The determination was carried out at the following wavelengths: 589.0 nm (Na) and 766.5 nm (K). The colorimetric method with ammonium molybdate(VI), sodium sulfate(IV), and hydroquinone helped determine the content of phosphorus (P—610 nm). Absorbance measurements were performed using Spectrophotometer VIS 6000 (KRÜSS—OPTRONIC, Hamburg, Germany).

2.4. Statistical Analysis

The Statistica software package version 13.3 (StatSoft, Kraków, Poland, 2016) was used in the data analysis [55]. Significant differences were calculated according to analysis of variance (ANOVA) test and Duncan’s test with the significance level of p < 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Fatty Acid Composition and Lipid Quality Indices

Data presented in Table 1 shows the total content of fatty acid groups and the values of lipid quality indices in the analyzed samples. The fatty acid composition of milk fat is very complex as it includes over 400 different fatty acids (FAs) of various chain lengths and degrees of unsaturation. The fat of cow’s milk contains about 70% of SFAs, 25% of MUFAs, and 2–5% PUFAs [56,57]. The short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) (from C4:0 to C10:0 carbon atoms) account for approximately 10% of the total SFAs. Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) were found in the highest amount in the fats extracted from the analyzed milk samples. Pasteurized milk was found to contain the highest content of these acids. Fat from raw milk and yogurts was characterized by a significantly (p < 0.05) lower SFA content (Table 1). The fat from pasteurized milk had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and odd-chain fatty acids (OCFAs). The content of branched fatty acids (BCFAs) in the fat of the analyzed milk and yogurts was at a similar level. Analyzed pasteurized milk and yogurts produced using FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex with BB-12 had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher MUFA content than raw milk and yogurts produced using FD-DVS YC-180 Yo-Flex with BB-12. The highest content of PUFAs (20.19 mg/g fat) was determined in the fat from pasteurized milk. Raw milk and fat from yogurts produced had significantly lower (p < 0.05) contents of PUFAs (Table 1). The fatty acid profile of dairy products, apart from the quality of the raw material, may be influenced by the conditions used in the technological process, such as heat treatment, homogenization, fermentation, and storage. However, the studies addressing these issues have produced inconsistent findings. According to Santos Júnior et al. [32], milk after pasteurization was characterized by a higher content of SCFAs and PUFAs and lower content of MUFAs. In turn, Khan et al. [26] presented a study in which an increase in short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) as well as a decrease in long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) after pasteurization and cooking, was observed, due to high milk temperature, while the study by Pestana et al. [27] demonstrated a decline in SCFAs.
From the nutritional point of view, it is particularly important to determine the content of (n − 6) PUFA and (n − 3) PUFA fatty acids because their proper supply is essential for human health [15]. The conducted research showed a significantly higher (p < 0.05) content of (n − 3) and (n − 6) PUFAs in fat obtained from pasteurized milk (Table 1) than in fat from raw milk and yogurts. Analyzed milk and yogurt had the (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio at a similar level. Excessive amounts of (n − 6) PUFAs and a high (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio present in a diet are said to promote the pathogenesis of many diseases, whereas diets with an increased level of (n − 3) PUFAs and a lower (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio exert suppressive effects [58,59]. The research by Santos Junior et al. [32] showed that yogurts and pasteurized milk had significantly lower contents of (n − 6) acids than raw milk, and the content of (n − 3) acids was significantly lower in yogurts than in raw and pasteurized milk. The research presented by these authors indicated that yogurts were characterized by a significantly higher (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio than raw and pasteurized milk. The optimal (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio should be 2:1 to 3:1; however, the risk of many chronic diseases can be reduced by diets with a lower (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio, which makes it more desirable [59].
The values of DFAs (desirable hypocholesterolemic fatty acids) and OFA (hypercholesterolemic fatty acids) were different in the analyzed milk and produced yogurts (Table 1). Fat from pasteurized milk was characterized by the highest content of DFAs, while fat from raw milk and yogurts produced had a significantly lower (p < 0.05) content of. Significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of OFAs were found in fat from pasteurized milk than in raw milk. The content of OFAs in the fat from analyzed yogurts varied significantly (p < 0.05).
The atherogenic index (AI) and thrombogenic index (TI) take into account the different effects that single fatty acids might have on human health. The AI and TI prove better in characterizing the atherogenic and thrombogenic potential of the diet than the PUFAs/SFAs ratio [23]. The AI and the TI are great tools in the assessment of the potential effects of FAs composition on our health. Diets that include products in which the composition of fatty acids are with lower AI and TI may be helpful in reducing the risk of coronary heart disease due to a better nutritional quality of said products [13]. AI indicates the relationship between the sum of primary saturated fatty acids and that of main classes of unsaturated, the former being considered pro-atherogenic (favoring the adhesion of lipids to cells of the immunological and circulatory system), and the latter anti-atherogenic (inhibiting the aggregation of plaque and diminishing levels of esterified fatty acids, cholesterol, and phospholipids, thereby preventing the appearance of micro- and macro-coronary diseases). On the other hand, TI shows the tendency to form clots in the blood vessels. Moreover, it characterizes the relationship between pro-thrombogenic (saturated) and anti-thrombogenic fatty acids (MUFAs, (n − 6) PUFAs, and (n − 3) PUFAs) [60]. Milk and milk products that are characterized by a low AI may have an impact on decreasing the possibility of coronary heart diseases. The presented study (Table 1) shows that the AI and TI values were at similar levels in raw milk, pasteurized milk, and yogurts produced. Their lower values, that indicate high quantities of anti-atherogenic fatty acids in fat, are recommended for a healthy diet. The hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic (HH) ratio characterizes the relationship between hypocholesterolemic fatty acid (cis C18:1 and PUFA) and hypercholesterolemic fatty acids (C12:0, C14:0, and C16:0) [61]. In the present study, the H/H ratio was at a similar level in milk and yogurts produced from this milk (Table 1).

3.2. CLA Content in Milk and Yogurts

Probiotic bacteria used in dairy production are able to synthesize conjugated linolenic acid cis-9, trans-11 C18: 2 (CLA). According to literature data [62,63], the content of CLA in milk fat ranges from 2.3 to 6.0 mg/g of fat. Such variety is a result of different factors, including animal feeding, breed, age, and lactation period [64,65,66,67,68,69]. According to many authors [36,41,42,62,70], the content of CLA in fermented dairy products may be different than that of the milk they were made of. The production process can also be a factor that has an impact on its content in dairy products. The content of CLA in dairy products may be influenced by industrial technological treatments and additives used [71,72,73,74,75]. According to literature data [76,77,78,79], selected bacterial strains are capable of synthesizing CLA during fermentation; however, the process can be impacted by many factors, such as the number of cells, appropriate concentration of the substrate and incubation conditions.
The conducted research has shown that the content of CLA in raw milk was 2.26 mg/g of fat. In pasteurized milk its content was slightly lower, reaching 2.17 mg/g of fat. In yogurts produced using FD-DVS YC-180 Yo-Flex with BB-12 containing Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis, Streptococcus thermophiles, and Bifidobacterium bifidum, it was at a similar level to the one found in raw milk. A significantly (p < 0.05) higher content of this acid (2.67 mg/g fat) was found in yogurts produced using the FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex starter culture with BB-12, containing Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Streptococcus thermophiles, and Bifidobacterium bifidum (Figure 1). A study by Santos Junior et al. [32] indicated that raw milk had 14.91 mg/g of fat of cis9trans11 C18:2 acid, while pasteurized milk and yogurts were characterized by a significantly lower content of this acid, reaching 6.22 mg/g of fat and 5.41 mg/g of fat, respectively. According to Lin et.al. [80], the content of CLA in fermented milk drinks varied from 3.82 mg/g of fat in yogurts to 4.66 mg/g of fat in buttermilk. In non-fermented milk drinks, the content of CLA ranged from 3.38 mg/g of fat in condensed milk to 4.49 mg/g of fat in whole milk. Prandini et al. [75] stated that the mean CLA content in Italian fermented milk drinks produced with varied starter cultures ranged from 4.42 mg/g of fat in probiotic yogurts to 6.15 mg/g of fat in fermented milk from mountain pasture cows.

3.3. The Mineral Composition of Milk and Yogurts

Table 2 presents the mean contents of selected micro-elements (Cu, Mn, Fe, and Zn), whereas Table 3 presents the mean contents of selected macro-elements (Mg, Ca, Na, K, and P) in raw milk, pasteurized milk, and yogurts produced. The yogurts had significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of copper and manganese compared to milk they were made of (Table 2). The iron content was the highest (26.9 µg/100 g) in the yogurts produced using the FD-DVS YC-180 Yo-Flex starter culture enriched with BB-12, while milk and yogurts produced using the FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex starter culture with BB-12 had a significantly lower content of this element (Table 2). Zinc content was similar in both pasteurized milk and yogurts, whereas raw milk was characterized by a significantly (p < 0.05) lower value of this microelement.
Among the macroelements tested, calcium and potassium were found in the highest contents in milk and yogurts produced (Table 3). Their contents in pasteurized milk and yogurts were similar but significantly (p < 0.05) lower in raw milk. The magnesium content of raw milk reached 7.6 mg/100 g and was significantly lower than its contents in pasteurized milk and yogurts made of it (Table 3). Contents of sodium and phosphorus were the highest in the yogurts produced using the FD-DVS YC-180 Yo-Flex starter culture with BB-12 and reached 50.5 mg/100 g and 121.7 mg/100 g, respectively. In turn, the lowest contents of these elements were determined in the yogurts manufactured using the FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex starter culture with BB-12 and in pasteurized milk. Only raw milk had a significantly (p < 0.05) lower content of sodium and potassium compared to the pasteurized milk and yogurts. Research by Zamberlin et al. [81] showed similar contents of macronutrients (calcium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorus) in cow’s milk. In cow’s milk tested by Paszczyk et al. [82], the content of calcium, potassium, and phosphorus was also at a similar level, while the content of sodium was lower than in the milk used in these studies. Research by Paszczyk et al. [82] also showed that the content of minerals was significantly (p <0.05) higher than in yogurts produced from cow’s milk than in the milk used produce them. The increase of the content of micro- and macroelements in the analyzed yogurts compared to the milk used for their production may be caused, on the one hand, by the addition of powdered milk in the production process. Higher levels of some elements may also come from physical contamination from metals, plastics, and other materials used during the production and storage of fermented milk products.

4. Conclusions

Data analysis showed that such technologies as milk pasteurization and milk fermentation had a significant impact on the fatty acid profile, lipid quality indices, and contents of micro- and macroelements in the analyzed samples of milk and yogurts. Yogurts were characterized by significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of all determined micro- and macroelements compared to raw milk, which was used for their production. The study demonstrated that the starter culture type affected the content of cis-9, trans-11 CLA C18:2 acid in yogurts. Only one of all the starter cultures that were used to conduct this study, the FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex starter culture with BB-12, caused a significant increase in CLA content. Appropriate selection of lactic acid bacteria strains and appropriate production process conditions may result in fermented milk products being naturally enriched in CLA isomers, which might be a new trend in the dairy market. However, the topic of whether CLA production by LAB and Bifidobacteria can be enhanced needs further research to help determine the optimal requirements for these starter cultures.

Author Contributions

B.P. manuscript conceptualization and preparation, performed the experiment, methodology, data analysis, review and writing—original draft preparation, project administration, and funding acquisition; E.T. performed the experiment, methodology, data analysis, and review. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project was financially supported by the Minister of Education and Science in the scope of the program entitled “Regional Initiative of Excellence” for the years 2019–2022; project No. 010/RID/2018/19; amount of funding: PLN 12.000.000.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express special thanks to Waldemar Brandt for help in preparing yogurts for research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 12 06558 g001 550
Figure 1. The content of cis-9,trans-11 C18:2 (CLA) in raw milk, pasteurized milk, and yogurts produced. n = 4 for raw and pasteurized milk; n = 8 for yogurts; a,b—values with different letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Figure 1. The content of cis-9,trans-11 C18:2 (CLA) in raw milk, pasteurized milk, and yogurts produced. n = 4 for raw and pasteurized milk; n = 8 for yogurts; a,b—values with different letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Applsci 12 06558 g001
Table
Table 1. The sum of fatty acids (mg/g fat) and nutritional indices of milk and yogurts produced.
Table 1. The sum of fatty acids (mg/g fat) and nutritional indices of milk and yogurts produced.
Raw MilkPasteurized MilkYogurts Produced
Using FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex
with BB-12		Yogurts Produced
Using FD-DVS
YC-180 Yo-Flex
with BB-12
Mean±SDMean±SDMean±SDMean±SD
n 4 4 8 8
ΣSCFA 163.464.26 b75.691.18 a62.182.37 b62.554.26 b
ΣBCFA 27.110.34 a9.160.28 a8.842.21 a7.130.45 a
ΣOCFA 311.760.40 c15.380.49 a13.210.57 b11.780.77 c
ΣSFA 4368.6014.26 c466.909.43 a417.0423.50 b369.9624.06 c
ΣMUFA 5140.385.33 b178.995.40 a162.5712.11 a141.889.36 b
ΣPUFA 616.220.43 b20.190.45 a17.971.19 b15.941.12 b
(n − 3)1.380.08 b1.790.07 a1.520.08 b1.410.11 b
(n − 6)10.040.28 c12.980.42 a11.560.60 b10.400.62 b,c
(n − 6)/(n − 3)7.310.23 a7.240.04 a7.620.66 a7.390.19 a
UFA 7432.0618.53 b542.5910.62 a479.2224.18 b432.5127.88 b
DFA 8482.3220.57 b606.1712.69 a536.7626.86 b483.1130.86 b
OFA 9318.3412.22 c403.327.36 a359.5020.81 b319.3621.07 c
AI 101.970.00 a1.950.03 a1.920.05 a1.950.06 a
TI 113.760.00 a3.720.05 a3.670.09 a3.730.11 a
H/H 120.400.00 a0.410.01 a0.420.020.410.01 a
n—number of samples; Mean—mean value; SD—standard deviation; a,b,c—values denoted in rows by different letters indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05); 1 ΣSCFA: sum of short-chain fatty acids (C4:0–C10:0); 2 ΣBCFA—all branched-chain fatty acids; 3 ΣOCFA—all odd-chain fatty acids; 4 SFA—saturated fatty acids (without SCFA); 5 ΣMUFA—sum of monounsaturated fatty acids; 6 ΣPUFA—sum of polyunsaturated fatty acids; 7 UFA—sum of unsaturated fatty acids (ΣMUFA + ΣPUFA); 8 DFA—hypocholesterolemic fatty acids (ΣUFA + C18:0); 9 OFA- hypercholesterolemic fatty acids (ΣSFA-C18:0); 10 AI (Index of Atherogenicity); 11 TI (Index of Thrombogenicity); 12 H/H (hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio).
Table
Table 2. Microelements in milk and yogurts produced (µg/100 g wet weight).
Table 2. Microelements in milk and yogurts produced (µg/100 g wet weight).
Raw MilkPasteurized MilkYogurts Produced Using FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex
with BB-12		Yogurts Produced Using FD-DVS YC-180 Yo-Flex
with BB-12
Mean±SDMean±SDMean±SDMean±SD
n4 4 8 8
Cu11.30.1 b12.40.3 b14.21.5 a14.50.8 a
Mn2.500.3 b2.80.3 b3.900.3 a3.500.4 a
Fe14.92.3 b19.31.0 b19.61.1 b26.97.3 a
Zn435.020.8 b555.132.0 a552.618.4 a545.619.1 a
n—number of samples; Mean—mean value; SD—standard deviation; a,b—values denoted in rows by different letters indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 3. Macroelements in milk and yogurts produced (mg/100 g wet weight).
Table 3. Macroelements in milk and yogurts produced (mg/100 g wet weight).
Raw MilkPasteurized MilkYogurts Produced Using FD-DVS
YC-X16 Yo-Flex
with BB-12		Yogurts Produced Using FD-DVS
YC-180 Yo-Flex
with BB-12
Mean±SDMean±SDMean±SDMean±SD
n 4 4 8 8
Mg7.60.8 b9.00.5 a9.700.2 a10.00.2 a
Ca128.38.1 b154.78.1 a158.73.9 a161.17.1 a
Na39.42.2 b46.72.2 a47.11.0 a50.54.4 a
K158.19.6 b188.99.6 a188.75.5 a196.49.0 a
P94.65.4 b115.45.4 a118.21.4 a121.78.4 a
n—number of samples; Mean—mean value; SD—standard deviation; a,b—values denoted in rows by different letters indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05).
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Paszczyk, B.; Tońska, E. Fatty Acid Content, Lipid Quality Indices, and Mineral Composition of Cow Milk and Yogurts Produced with Different Starter Cultures Enriched with Bifidobacterium bifidum. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6558. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136558

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Paszczyk B, Tońska E. Fatty Acid Content, Lipid Quality Indices, and Mineral Composition of Cow Milk and Yogurts Produced with Different Starter Cultures Enriched with Bifidobacterium bifidum. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(13):6558. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136558

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Paszczyk, Beata, and Elżbieta Tońska. 2022. "Fatty Acid Content, Lipid Quality Indices, and Mineral Composition of Cow Milk and Yogurts Produced with Different Starter Cultures Enriched with Bifidobacterium bifidum" Applied Sciences 12, no. 13: 6558. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136558

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