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Article

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Asteraceae Family Plants

by
Ewa Piątkowska
1,
Wioletta Biel
2,
Robert Witkowicz
3 and
Jagoda Kępińska-Pacelik
2,*
1
Department of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Balicka 122, 30-149 Krakow, Poland
2
Department of Monogastric Animal Sciences, Division of Animal Nutrition and Food, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Klemensa Janickiego 29, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland
3
Department of Agroecology and Crop Production, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Krakow, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(23), 12293; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312293
Submission received: 14 November 2022 / Revised: 24 November 2022 / Accepted: 30 November 2022 / Published: 1 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical and Functional Properties of Food and Natural Products)
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Abstract

:
Plants of the Asteraceae family have been used in traditional medicine for thousands of years. Now, forgotten for some time, they are gaining popularity again. The aim of this study was to determine and compare the proximate composition and antioxidant activity of inflorescences and leaves of Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. (common dandelion), Tanacetum vulgare L. (tansy) and Solidago virgaurea L. (European goldenrod). The content of dry matter, crude protein, crude ash and crude fat was determined according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). The content of total polyphenols was determined using methanol extracts. Antioxidant activity was determined by three methods. The protein content was the highest in Taraxacum officinale. The fat and ash content increased in the sequence of Solidago virgaurea < Tanacetum vulgare < Taraxacum officinale. The total content of polyphenols in the material and its antioxidant activity (AA) were different between species. Changes were also observed in the morphological parts of the plants. The results of the research encourage the use of not only those parts of plants known but also inflorescences or leaves, which can be excellent ingredients for drugs and other preparations used in medicine or cosmetology and also in the food industry.

1. Introduction

The attention paid to the chemical substances contained in plants is mainly from their use in medicine and pharmacy. The proximate composition of herbs depends, among others, on the season, agrotechnical conditions and the development phase of the plant or its morphological part (inflorescence, leaf, stem, root, fruit and seed) [1]. Among the active substances that determine the biological activity of the plant material, polyphenolic compounds are of great interest [2,3,4,5]. They are secondary metabolites that protect the human body against the negative effects of oxidative stress. The plants from which the obtained raw material has an antioxidant effect include plants that are common in the immediate vicinity of humans. One such plant is the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.). This plant has antibacterial, antiangiogenic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and analgesic effects [6,7,8,9,10,11]. Among the biologically active substances of dandelion leaves, there are, e.g., antioxidants (i.a., flavonoids) [12,13,14]. The most commonly used part of this plant is the root, which is rich in bitterness, for which tannins are responsible [15]. The root is used in the treatment of liver diseases, gall bladder and rheumatic conditions [6,16]. In traditional medicine, dandelion inflorescences are of great interest and are mainly used to produce herbal honey and syrups with anti-inflammatory, antiviral and antibacterial properties. Slightly less popular are the leaves because they are less appealing to the consumer in sensory terms. The leaves are less popular for preparing medicines with antioxidant, diuretic, saluretic and immunity-increasing properties are prepared [17,18,19,20,21]. In addition, dandelion leaves and leaf extracts are used in cooking and in the food industry [22,23,24].
Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.), same as the dandelion, is common, and the main raw material is the inflorescences. Its use in traditional medicine is not as common today as that of other herbs. This is mainly due to the side effect of severe congestion in internal organs, which can be dangerous for human health. Responsible for these effects is thujone, found in tansy herb [25]. The composition of its inflorescences is dominated by essential oils, flavonoids, terpenes, organic acids and lactones [26]. Due to the presence of these substances, tansy shows antiparasitic (human roundworm, pinworms), anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, analgesic, sedative, antispasmodic, stabilizing metabolic processes, choleretic, detoxifying and anticancer properties [27,28,29,30]. The antioxidant effect of tansy leaves was also confirmed [12,31]. Currently, it is mainly used externally as a repellent for insects (lice, flies, mosquitoes, ticks, flies), as well as for human scalp care (excessive greasy, dandruff).
The raw material of European goldenrod/woundwort (Solidago virgaurea L.) is the aboveground part of the plant collected during the flowering period. The goldenrod herb contains polyphenols, saponins and essential oils; this mainly applies to its leaves [32,33,34,35]. Thanks to these ingredients, goldenrod herb show diuretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, as well as hypotensive and sedative effects [36,37,38,39]. Thus far, only the chemical composition and antioxidant properties of the whole goldenrod herb have been analyzed [33,40]. There is little information in the available literature on the proximate composition and antioxidant properties of common dandelion, tansy, European goldenrod.
The aim of this study was to determine and compare the proximate composition and antioxidant activity of inflorescences and leaves of common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.), tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) and European goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea L.).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material

Plant material was collected in 2019 from the collection of medicinal and useful plants at the Experimental Station in Lipnik (53°20′35″ N, 14°58′10″ E), in north-western Poland (Figure 1). The collection is conducted by a team of botanists and agrotechnicians from the West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin (Poland). The subjects of the study were the inflorescences and leaves of Asteraceae family plants: common dandelion, tansy and European goldenrod growing on typical rusty soils, classified according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resource [41]. At the Ap level (arable soil—humus horizon), the soil was a slightly acidic loamy sand. The humus level was formed from clay sands. An analysis of soil minerals showed moderate levels of magnesium and potassium and high levels of phosphorus. The levels of metals in the soil did not exceed permissible limits [42]. Plants were harvested manually when at least 80% were in full bloom. Plants were cut at the basal end, about 20 cm above the soil surface; divided into inflorescences and leaves; weighed, and dried at room temperature (18–22 °C) for 3–4 days. Samples of inflorescences and leaves were ground to 0.1 mm by use of a laboratory mill type KNIFETEC 1095 (Foss Tecator, Höganäs, Sweden).

2.2. Proximate Composition

The proximate composition was determined according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists’ methods [43] in the ground samples. Samples were dried at 105 °C to a constant weight to determine dry matter (DM) content (and content of moisture—method 945.15). Crude protein (CP) content (method 945.18) was determined by the Kjeldahl method using a Büchi Scrubber B414 digestion apparatus and a Büchi 324 distillation set (Büchi Labortechnik AG, Flawil, Switzerland). Crude fat (as ether extract, EE) content was determined by the Soxhlet method with diethyl ether used as a solvent (method 945.16). The content of crude fiber (CF) was determined with an ANKOM220 FiberAnalyser (ANKOM Technology, New York, NY, USA). Crude ash (CA) content was determined by burning in an FCF 22SP muffle furnace (Czylok, Poland) at 580 °C for 8 h (method 920.153). All analyses were carried out in duplicate. Total carbohydrate content was calculated by subtracting from 100% the sum of crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, crude ash and moisture.

2.3. Extracts Preparation

Dried samples were used to prepare methanol extracts (2−3 g of sample in 80 cm3 of 70% methanol solution). In each case, dried plant material samples were extracted by shaking (75 c.p.m. (cycle per minute)) (Elpan, water bath shaker type 357, Elpin-Plus, Lubawa Poland) at room temperature for 2 h, and the solution was centrifuged (3000 rpm, 10 min, room temperature) (centrifuge type MPW-340, MPW Medical Instruments, Warsaw, Poland), filtered (paper filter) and then the extracts were stored frozen (−22 °C) in the freezer until further analysis.

2.4. Determination of Total Phenolic Compounds Content

In order to measure the total content of phenolic compounds, methanol extracts were used using the Folin–Ciocalteau reagent. This method involves the colorimetric determination of colored products, which are formed when polyphenolic compounds react with the Folin–Ciocalteau reagent (Sigma, St. Luis, Missouri, MO, USA). The concentration of total polyphenolic compounds was spectrophotometrically determined at a wavelength of λ = 760 nm using a RayLeigh UV-1800 spectrophotometer (Beijing Beifen-Ruili Analytical Instrument, Beijing, China), according to the Folin–Ciocalteau method [44]. The results were expressed as chlorogenic acid equivalents (CGA) in milligrams per 100 g of dry matter based on a standard curve.

2.5. Determination of Antioxidant Activity

2.5.1. ABTS Method

In order to determine the antioxidant activity, methanol extracts were used based on the ability of the sample to capture free radicals, e.g., ABTS+ (2, 2’-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) [45]. Absorbance was measured at a wavelength of λ = 734 nm using a RayLeigh UV-1800 spectrophotometer. Values obtained for each sample were compared with the concentration–response curve of the standard Trolox solution and expressed as micromoles of Trolox equivalent per 1 g of dry matter.

2.5.2. DPPH Method

The DPPH test was carried out according to Miliauskas et al. [46] with some modifications. The stock solution of DPPH+ was prepared by dissolving 6 mg of 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl in 100 cm3 of methanol. The working solution was obtained by diluting the stock solution with methanol to obtain an absorbance of 0.900–1.000 at 515 nm. A 0.080 cm3 of the extract was transferred into a test tube and made up to 1.5 mL with methanol. After mixing a diluted extract with 3 mL of the solution of the DPPH+, the mixture was kept in the dark at room temperature for 10 min. After this time, the absorbance at 515 nm was measured. Values obtained for each sample were compared to the concentration–response curve of the standard Trolox solution and expressed as micromoles of Trolox equivalent per 1 g of dry matter.

2.5.3. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Method

The measured total reducing capability, using the FRAP method, was determined as previously reported by Benzie and Strain [47] with modifications. The working solution of FRAP reagent was prepared with 100 cm3 of 300 mM acetate buffer—pH 3.6, 10 mL of 10 mM 2,4,6-tris(2-pyridyl)-s-triazine (TPTZ) in a 40 mM hydrochloric acid solution and 10 mL of 20 mM ferric chloride hexahydrate. A total of 10–200 µL of the extract was transferred into a test tube and made up to 1 mL with 70% methanol. After mixing a diluted extract with 3 mL of working solution of the FRAP reagent, the mixture was kept in the dark at room temperature for 10 min. The absorbance of the samples was measured at 593 nm (spectrophotometer (UV—1800, RayLeigh, Beijing Beifen-Ruili Analytical Instrument Co., Ltd., Beijing, China)). Values obtained for each sample were compared to the concentration–response curve of the standard Trolox solution and expressed as micromoles of Trolox equivalent per 1 g of dry matter. The percent inhibition of DPPH radical and ABTS radical generation was calculated using Formula (1).
RSA% = [(A0 − A1)/A0] × 100
A0 is the absorbance of the control (for ABTS) and of the sample at the beginning of the reaction (for DPPH), and A1 is the absorbance of the sample (in 6 min for ABTS; in 10 min for DPPH).

2.6. Statistical Analyses

The obtained results were statistically analyzed using the Statistica 13.3 software [48]. Two factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) for all analyzed features and principal component analysis (PCA) were carried out using the Statistica 13.3 software [48]. The significance of differences between means was assessed using the Newman–Keuls test at p = 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Species and Morphological Origin of Raw Material

3.1.1. Proximate Composition

The proximate composition of the analyzed raw materials obtained from plants of three representatives of the Asteraceae family was clearly different (Table 1). The content of dry matter was slightly diversified, but it still allowed the classification of the species in terms of its content. Tansy (91.35%) was characterized by the lowest dry matter content, and the highest was from the common dandelion (92.76%). The protein content also took this gradation with the highest content of 15.25% DM in the material from common dandelion. The fat and ash content increased in the sequence European goldenrod < tansy < common dandelion.
The highest content of carbohydrates was found in the material from European goldenrod and the intermediate in the material from common dandelion. The high content of individual nutrients in the material from common dandelion resulted in the lowest content of crude fiber (13.09% DM) in comparison to other species. When considering the morphological origin of the raw material (leaves, inflorescences), it should be noted that their proximate composition is clearly different. The macronutrient profiles of the different parts of the Asteraceae family species (leaves and inflorescences) are also shown in Table 1. The leaves contained more amounts of protein, carbohydrates, ash and less fat and crude fiber compared to the inflorescences.

3.1.2. Total Polyphenols Content and Antioxidant Activity

The total content of polyphenols and their antioxidant activity (AA) were different between both the tested species and the morphological parts that constituted the raw material (Table 2).
The material from European goldenrod was characterized by the definitely highest total polyphenol content (2000 mg CAE/100 g DM). When assessing the morphological origin of the raw material, it should be stated that the total polyphenol content in the inflorescences was nearly 50% higher than that found in the leaves (1320 mg CAE/100 g DM). This translated into a greater AA of inflorescences determined by three methods used. The observed proportions between AA determined by various radical methods indicate different chemical natures of antioxidants in inflorescences and leaves. This is due to the fact that the DPPH˙+ radical dissolves only in organic solvents and does not allow the determination of hydrophilic antioxidants. Obviously, it is also necessary to take into account the fact that the ABTS˙+ radical reacting with, for example, flavonoids gives products with stronger antioxidant properties and faster reaction with the radical than the parent compounds. By taking the above into account, however, it may be suggested that among leaf antioxidant compounds, compared to inflorescences, a slightly higher proportion of hydrophilic antioxidants was found. As a result, the ability to scavenge free radicals determined with the use of the ABTS˙+ radical in the material from leaves (RSA = 68.02%) was greater than that determined for inflorescences (RSA = 64.44%). The physical and chemical properties of the material of the studied species influenced their AA. The material from European goldenrod, apart from the highest total polyphenol content, was characterized by the highest AA determined by the method using the ABTS˙+ radical and the method using TPTZ. On the other hand, the method using the DPPH˙+ radical indicated common dandelion as the species whose raw material shows the highest AA. In the case of this species, a very slight difference in the AA made with the participation of various radicals was observed, which suggests a relatively small share of the hydrophilic fraction of antioxidants in the raw material.

3.2. Comparison: Species × Part of Plants Interaction

3.2.1. Proximate Composition

Among the analyzed morphological parts of the three studied species, the leaves of common dandelion had the highest dry matter content (93.09%), and the leaves of tansy were the lowest (91.27%) (Table 3). The high content of dry matter in the leaves of common dandelion was accompanied by the accumulation of the largest amount of crude protein (16.91% DM) and crude ash (11.78% DM) compared to other raw materials. Tansy leaves were characterized by the highest carbohydrate content (49.84% DM). The highest content of crude fat was found in the inflorescences of common dandelion (9.15% DM), and the highest content of crude fiber was in the inflorescences of tansy (20.90% DM).
PCA analysis confirmed the distinctness of the proximate composition of raw materials obtained from plants of the Asteraceae family. This is evidenced by the distribution of raw materials on the plot of factor coordinates (Figure 2B) because the raw material, which is leaves, is located in the I and II quarters, and the inflorescences in III and IV. The analysis confirms the significant distinctiveness of tansy inflorescences due to the high content of crude fiber. On the other hand, European goldenrod leaves were characterized by a particularly low content of this component and, at the same time, a significantly higher content of carbohydrates among the assessed raw materials. Moreover, the strong negative correlation between the crude fiber content and the protein content can be clearly seen (Figure 2A).

3.2.2. Total Polyphenols Content and Antioxidant Activity

The raw material containing the lowest amount of total polyphenols were leaves of common dandelion (690.7 mg CAE/100 g DM) (Table 4). The low content of total polyphenols was also accompanied by a low AA of the raw material, determined with the use of three methods. As a result, the ability to scavenge free radicals determined with the use of the DPPH˙+ radical was also the lowest (RSA = 41.46%), but this parameter determined based on the ABTS˙+ radical was the highest among the compared raw materials (RSA = 73.47%), which indicates a strong the hydrophilic nature of the antioxidants of this raw material.
Contrary to the leaves of common dandelion, the highest amount of polyphenols was found in the inflorescences of this species (2330.1 mg CAE/100 g DM). Moreover, the three methods used to determine the antioxidant activity confirmed a very large AA of inflorescence of common dandelion. The obtained results were the highest among the raw materials compared. However, the nature of antioxidants significantly changed because, in the case of inflorescences, the highest scavenging ability of free radicals was confirmed using the DPPH˙+ radical (54.32%) and the lowest one using the ABTS˙+ radical (63.20%). This probably means an increase in the proportion of the lipophilic fraction of antioxidants contained in common dandelion inflorescences compared to the proportion of this fraction in the leaves of this species. A slightly lower total polyphenol content was determined in the inflorescences of European goldenrod and then the leaves of this species. These raw materials showed a similar AA and free radical scavenging ability. The next two raw materials with an even lower polyphenol content are the leaves and inflorescences of tansy. Despite the content of polyphenols, 1467.1 and 1399.2 mg CAE/100 g DM, respectively, differed in their antioxidant properties and their ability to scavenge free radicals. The leaves were characterized by a high ability to scavenge free radicals determined with the use of the DPPH˙+ radical (47.89%) and the inflorescences using the ABTS˙+ radical (67.67%). This indicates the diversity of antioxidant compounds in these raw materials.
The PCA analysis showed that the first two components account for nearly 76% of the total variability of the original data. The location in the second and fourth quarters of inflorescences’ raw material indicates a much higher AA, which is consistent with the tabular listings. Moreover, the correlation of AA determined by various methods with the content of polyphenols in the raw material was confirmed, which in turn was correlated with the content of crude fat. There was no correlation between AA and the content of crude fiber or carbohydrates.

4. Discussion

Knowledge of the proximate composition of the raw material allows for determining its possible use in medicine, cosmetology, pharmacy and the food industry. For pharmacy and medicine, research on determining the biological activity of the plant, mainly antioxidant activity, is of the greatest importance. The antioxidant effect protects tissues and organs against the harmful effects of free radicals leading to the development of diseases (e.g., cancer, cardiovascular) [16,49]. Analysis of the literature showed that the most popular are essential oils obtained from plants with proven antioxidant activity [50]. However, there is little data on the proximate composition and antioxidant activity of inflorescences and leaves of plants that are not commonly used in medicine while being common in temperate climates. Examples of such plants are the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.), tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) and European goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea L.). In addition, although these species are becoming more and more popular as herbal medicine, they still have a low level of production and consumption, especially their flowers. Of these three species from the Asteraceae family, only the common dandelion has the greatest potential use as food in cosmetology and medicine [51].

4.1. Common Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.)

The literature contains mainly data on the proximate composition of leaves. Murtaza et al. [52] found higher values of crude ash (12.28 g/100 g DM) and carbohydrates (58.69 g/100 g DM) in dandelion leaves than were found in our study. At the same time, the protein content (15.48 g/100 g DM) was lower [53]. Flowers, if used in food preparation, are usually selected for their appearance and/or taste. However, very rarely treated as a source of high nutritional value, including valuable dietary fiber or protein [54]. Therefore, due to the rich source of these nutrients, flowers can also be included in the daily diet. As a source of dietary fiber, they can act as a prebiotic for intestinal bacteria.
Reports on the content of polyphenols are very diverse and concern mainly dandelion herbs, less often its roots and leaves. The research of Sengul et al. [55] showed the content of 15.50 mg GAE/g DM of polyphenolic compounds in the dandelion herb. Daniel et al. [56] obtained similar results. In the dandelion leaves, the total phenolic content was 15.3 mg GAE/g DM. Wojdyło et al. [12] found 12.6 mg GAE/100 g DM of polyphenols in the dandelion root. Katalinic et al. [40] determined the antioxidant activity of dandelion leaves using the FRAP method and obtained the result of 4256 µM/L. Detailed data on the antioxidant activity of the dandelion root was obtained by Wojdyło et al. [12]. The activity of the raw material was determined by three methods: ABTS, DPPH and FRAP. The antioxidant activity of the dandelion root investigated using the ABTS method was 1.76 µM Trolox/100 g DM, by the DPPH method 213 µM Trolox/100 g DM, while the FRAP method was 15.9 µM Trolox/100 g DM.

4.2. Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.)

The assessment of the proximate composition of this plant in scientific research focuses mainly on determining the composition and biological properties of the essential oil isolated from the herb. Thus far, the basic composition of neither the leaves nor the tansy inflorescences has been analyzed. The results of the research on the content of compounds determining the antioxidant properties of tansy leaves are single. Wojdyło [12] found the total content of polyphenols in tansy leaves at the level of 1.68 mg GAE/100 g DM.
Reports on the antioxidant activity of tansy concern mainly essential oils obtained from the herb, but there is little information about its leaves and inflorescences. Mantle [57] determined the antioxidant activity of tansy leaves at about 230 µM Trolox/g DM. The results of our research on the antioxidant activity of tansy leaves differ significantly from the studies by Wojdyło et al. [12]. The activity of leaves measured by DPPH (469 µM Trolox/100 g DM) and FRAP (455 µM Trolox/100 g DM) methods was about twice as high as in the present study. In the ABTS method, Wojdyło et al. [12] obtained almost seven times less activity of tansy leaves (37.3 µM Trolox/100 g DM) than in our study.

4.3. European Goldenrod (Solidago virgaureae L.)

As in the case of tansy, single information about the content of polyphenols in the herb can also be found in the literature for goldenrod. The basic composition of goldenrod leaves or inflorescences has not been studied in detail. Moreover, the vast majority of studies concern Canadian goldenrod, which is not common [34,58]. In the available literature, the content of polyphenols in goldenrod is very diverse. Katalinic et al. [40] noted 578 mg CAE/L polyphenols in herbs, and Kiselova et al. [59] found their content at the level of 422.39 µM QE (quercetin equivalent). There are very few reports in the literature on antioxidant activity measured separately for leaves and goldenrod inflorescences. Katalinic et al. [40] reported the antioxidant activity of the goldenrod herb measured by the FRAP method at 4256 µmol/L. The antioxidant activity of the goldenrod herb S. virgaurea L. from Bulgaria measured by the ABTS method was 1.78 mM Trolox/L [59]. In Bulgaria, a close correlation was also noted between the content of polyphenols and the antioxidant activity of the raw material: the higher the content of polyphenols, the greater the activity. Deng et al. [60] measured the antioxidant activity of the leaves of the Canadian goldenrod (S. canadensis L.) using the DPPH method in three development stages of the plant: in the vegetative stage, in full flowering and after flowering. In the three vegetative stages, the leaves had an antioxidant activity at the level of 0.188 mg AAE (ascorbic acid equivalents)/g DM, 0.093 mg AAE/g DM and 0.225 mg AAE/g DM.

5. Conclusions

The research carried out as part of this study is one of the few that analyze the proximate composition of common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.), tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) and European goldenrod (Solidago virgaureae L.) inflorescences and leaves. Moreover, for the first time, the antioxidant activity of these raw materials was analyzed simultaneously using three different methods: ABTS, DPPH and FRAP. The highest amounts of carbohydrates were obtained in goldenrod leaves, lipids were found in dandelion inflorescences, and the highest amounts of minerals and proteins were found in dandelion leaves. The highest amount of crude fiber was found in tansy inflorescences. Dandelion inflorescences were characterized by the highest amount of polyphenolic compounds, while its leaves contained the least of these compounds among all the tested plant materials. The highest antioxidant activity was determined for dandelion inflorescences, while the lowest was for dandelion leaves. The results of the conducted research encourage the use of not only those parts of plants known for years (i.e., goldenrod herb, tansy oils, dandelion root) but also inflorescences or leaves, which can be an excellent ingredient of drugs and other preparations used in medicine or cosmetology. In addition, the possibility of using these plants as a supplement to the human diet (not only vegan or vegetarian) should also be taken into account, which should be based on natural, generally available ingredients, and plant products should be its basis. Food producers could consider the possibility of using these herbs as, for example, an addition to bars for athletes, for faster regeneration after training and for the elderly as an important enrichment of their diet. It is worth including them in the diet as ingredients for salads or many other dishes, e.g., for desserts, cakes/pastries, puddings and other similar food products. They can also enrich the daily diet, especially vegan and vegetarian.
Despite extensive research on the chemical composition of various species of the Asteraceae family plants, the scientific literature does not contain detailed information on the proximate composition and antioxidant activity in the analyzed morphological parts (inflorescences and leaves) of these species. The above facts prompted the authors to undertake thorough analyzes in these respects. The herbs investigated in this study can perfectly fit into the constantly growing market of dietary supplements, in particular, “botanical dietary supplements” or “herbal supplements”. It should be taken into account that additional research is also needed on the content of other substances, including anti-nutrients, which were not determined in these studies, and which may change the health-promoting profile of herbs. Further research may also be based on accurate characteristics of individual phenolic compounds, which may allow a better understanding of their impact on the human body.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.P, W.B., R.W. and J.K.-P.; methodology, E.P., W.B. and R.W.; software, R.W.; validation, E.P., W.B. and R.W.; formal analysis, E.P. and W.B.; investigation, E.P., W.B., R.W. and J.K.-P.; resources, R.W.; data curation, E.P.; writing—original draft preparation, E.P., W.B., R.W. and J.K.-P.; writing—review and editing, E.P., W.B., R.W. and J.K.-P.; visualization, J.K.-P.; supervision, W.B.; project administration, W.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 12 12293 g001 550
Figure 1. The map of the collection region.
Figure 1. The map of the collection region.
Applsci 12 12293 g001
Applsci 12 12293 g002 550
Figure 2. Biplot based on first two principal component axes for proximate composition and antioxidant activity of raw material from Asteraceae family plants (A) and distribution of raw material (leaves, inflorescences) based on the first two components obtained from principal component analysis (B).
Figure 2. Biplot based on first two principal component axes for proximate composition and antioxidant activity of raw material from Asteraceae family plants (A) and distribution of raw material (leaves, inflorescences) based on the first two components obtained from principal component analysis (B).
Applsci 12 12293 g002
Table
Table 1. The proximate composition of Asteraceae family plants.
Table 1. The proximate composition of Asteraceae family plants.
FactorDry Matter (g/100 g)Crude Protein (g/100 g DM)Crude Fat (g/100 g DM)Crude Fibre (g/100 g DM)Crude Ash (g/100 g DM)Total Carbohydrates (g/100 g DM)
Species 1
Common Dandelion92.76 c ± 0.1915.25 c ± 0.966.81 c ± 1.3513.09 a ± 1.079.11 c ± 1.5448.50 b ± 0.12
Tansy91.35 a ± 0.0512.57 a ± 0.595.18 b ± 0.0716.75 c ± 2.408.84 b ± 0.7748.03 a ± 1.05
European Goldenrod92.25 b ± 0.3514.51 b ± 0.384.67 a ± 0.0315.72 b ± 2.457.72 a ± 1.1649.64 c ± 0.55
Parts of plants 2
Leaves92.00 a ± 0.3515.22 b ± 0.064.74 a ± 0.1211.77 a ± 0.2610.56 b ± 0.3949.71 b ± 0.35
Inflorescences92.24 b ± 0.2712.99 a ± 0.466.36 b ± 0.8918.60 b ± 1.176.56 a ± 0.3347.74 a ± 0.49
1—the species means denoted by different letters differ statistically at p = 0.05 (for all columns separately); 2—the part of plant means denoted by different letters differ statistically at p = 0.05 (for all columns separately); the data are expressed in mean ± standard error of mean.
Table
Table 2. The total content of polyphenols and antioxidant activity of Asteraceae family plants.
Table 2. The total content of polyphenols and antioxidant activity of Asteraceae family plants.
FactorTotal Polyphenols (mg CAE 3/100 g DM)TEAC 4 ABTS˙+ (µM Trolox/1 g DM)RSA 5 ABTS (%)TEAC DPPH˙+ (µM Trolox/1 g DM)RSADPPH (%)TEAC (FRAP) (µM Trolox/1 g DM)
Species 1
Common Dandelion1510 a ± 474216.3 a ± 91.068.33 c ± 3.00187.4 b ± 96.947.89 c ± 3.74150.7 a ± 67.0
Tansy1433 a ± 116263.8 b ± 5.664.20 a ± 2.01150.8 a ± 27.044.41 b ± 2.03168.7 a ± 18.9
European Goldenrod2000 b ± 30319.1 c ± 5.266.17 b ± 2.18146.9 a ± 10.642.48 a ± 0.33249.1 b ± 8.2
Parts of plants 2
Leaves1320 a ± 208212.6 a ± 50.468.02 b ± 2.43115.6 a ± 32.843.88 a ± 1.29158.4 a ± 39.6
Inflorescences1976 b ± 184320.2 b ± 45.864.44 a ± 1.04207.8 b ± 48.045.97 b ± 2.68220.6 b ± 27.3
1—the species means denoted by different letters differ statistically at p = 0.05 (for all columns separately); 2—the part of plant means denoted by different letters differ statistically at p = 0.05 (for all columns separately); 3 CAE—chlorogenic acid equivalent; 4 TEAC—Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity; 5 RSA—radical scavenging activity; the data are expressed in mean ± standard error of mean.
Table
Table 3. The proximate composition of Asteraceae family plants (species × parts of plants interaction).
Table 3. The proximate composition of Asteraceae family plants (species × parts of plants interaction).
ItemInflorescencesLeaves
Common DandelionTansyEuropean GoldenrodCommon DandelionTansyEuropean Goldenrod
Dry matter (g/100 g) 192.43 d ± 0.0791.44 b ± 0.0292.86 e ± 0.0393.09 f ± 0.0591.27 a ± 0.0391.65 c ± 0.04
Crude protein (g/100 g DM)13.59 b ± 0.0411.54 a ± 0.0613.86 c ± 0.0216.91 e ± 0.0513.59 b ± 0.0715.16 d ± 0.05
Crude fat (g/100 g DM)9.15 c ± 0.135.27 b ± 0.054.66 a ± 0.044.47 a ± 0.065.09 b ± 0.094.67 a ± 0.07
Crude fibre (g/100 g DM)14.95 d ± 0.0720.90 f ± 0.0519.95 e ± 0.0611.24 a ± 0.0312.59 c ± 0.0211.48 b ± 0.06
Crude ash (g/100 g DM)6.45 b ± 0.017.52 c ± 0.015.71 a ± 0.0311.78 f ± 0.0110.17 e ± 0.019.74 d ± 0.01
Total carbohydrates (g/100 g DM)48.30 b ± 0.0346.22 a ± 0.0448.69 c ± 0.1348.69 c ± 0.0749.84 d ± 0.0250.60 e ± 0.01
1—different letters within each line indicate significant differences; the data are expressed in mean ± standard error of mean.
Table
Table 4. Total polyphenols content and antioxidant activity of Asteraceae family plants (species × parts of plants interaction).
Table 4. Total polyphenols content and antioxidant activity of Asteraceae family plants (species × parts of plants interaction).
ItemInflorescencesLeaves
Common DandelionTansyEuropean GoldenrodCommon DandelionTansyEuropean Goldenrod
Total polyphenols (mg CAE 2/100 g DM) 12330.1 e ± 29.91399.2 b ± 80.22198.9 d ± 42.9690.7 a ± 45.81467.1 b ± 11.91801.8 c ± 50.2
TEAC 3 ABTS˙+ (µM Trolox/1 g DM)373.8 d ± 12.7272.9 b ± 0.8313.9 c ± 3.358.79 a ± 2.04254.7 b ± 6.6324.4 c ± 14.2
RSA 4 ABTS (%)63.20 a ± 0.9467.67 b ± 0.1062.47 a ± 0.2873.47 c ± 1.3260.73 a ± 0.6669.87 b ± 1.51
TEAC DPPH˙+ (µM Trolox/1 g DM)354.9 e ± 21.1104.3 b ± 1.3164.2 c ± 11.819.90 a ± 0.73197.4 d ± 9.5129.6 b ± 4.4
RSADPPH (%)54.32 c ± 1.0540.93 a ± 0.1142.67 a ± 0.6941.46 a ± 0.3247.89 b ± 0.6342.30 a ± 0.32
TEAC (FRAP) (µM Trolox/1 g DM)266.3 d ± 19.9136.0 b ± 1.1259.6 d ± 18.835.17 a ± 1.04201.5 c ± 3.4238.6 d ± 3.8
1—different letters within each line indicate significant differences; the data are expressed in mean ± standard error of mean; 2 CAE—chlorogenic acid equivalent; 3 TEAC—Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity; 4 RSA—radical scavenging activity.
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Piątkowska, E.; Biel, W.; Witkowicz, R.; Kępińska-Pacelik, J. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Asteraceae Family Plants. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12293. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312293

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Piątkowska E, Biel W, Witkowicz R, Kępińska-Pacelik J. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Asteraceae Family Plants. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(23):12293. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312293

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Piątkowska, Ewa, Wioletta Biel, Robert Witkowicz, and Jagoda Kępińska-Pacelik. 2022. "Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Asteraceae Family Plants" Applied Sciences 12, no. 23: 12293. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312293

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