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Article

Shortbread Cookies Enriched with Micronized Oat Husk: Physicochemical and Sensory Properties

by
Dariusz Dziki
1,
Katarzyna Lisiecka
2,*,
Urszula Gawlik-Dziki
2,
Renata Różyło
3,
Anna Krajewska
1 and
Grażyna Cacak-Pietrzak
4
1
Department of Thermal Technology and Food Process Engineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Głęboka St 31, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
2
Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Skromna St 8, 20-704 Lublin, Poland
3
Department of Food Engineering and Machines, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Głęboka St 28, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
4
Department of Food Technology and Assessment, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 159C Nowoursynowska St, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(24), 12512; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412512
Submission received: 9 November 2022 / Revised: 3 December 2022 / Accepted: 5 December 2022 / Published: 7 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontier Research in Food Processing Technologies)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Oat (Avena sativa L.) by-products are valuable sources of many bioactive compounds and minerals. This paper aimed to study the possibility of using micronized oat husk (hull) as a partial replacement for wheat flour (at levels 5, 10, 15, and 20%) in shortbread production. The physicochemical and sensory properties of control and enriched cookies were studied. The incorporation of oat husk into shortbread increased the fiber and ash content, and decreased the available carbohydrates in the cookies. The color of the enriched shortbread significantly changed and the total color difference between the control and enriched cookies ranged from 4.76 to 11.00. Moreover, the total phenolics content and antioxidant activity linearly increased with the percentage of husk in the cookie recipe. Importantly, micronized oat husk at a level of 20% had little influence on the sensory acceptability of cookies. However, replacement of wheat flour higher than 10% resulted in a harder texture of cookies and lower scores for this attribute were obtained. To summarize, in this work we showed that micronized oat husk can be a valuable additive for cookie fortification.

1. Introduction

Cookies are an example of bakery products, which are popular among most people regardless of social conditions. However, the prevalence and availability of knowledge on diet-related diseases among consumers lead them to search for functional products. In the case of cookies, functionality can be achieved by enriching traditional baked goods with bioactive ingredients [1]. Shortbreads are a type of cookie containing high quantities of fat, which is responsible for the typical brittleness of cookies [2]. Ordinary cake recipes include wheat flour as a base, characterized by deficient amino acids, i.e., lysine or tryptophan [3], fibers, and phytochemicals [4]. The latest trends in the enrichment of wheat cookies have been based on adding date seed powder [5], fenugreek, oat flours [6], red grape skin extract, oat β-glucan [7,8] and omega-3 fatty acids [9] to improve their nutritional and health-promoting properties.
Oat is called the “super grain” due to the health benefits of the content of soluble fiber, polyphenols, and antioxidants in the grain. In comparison to other cereals, oat grain has a balanced composition of amino acids [10]. During the processing of oat grains, oat bran (OB) is often produced, which is widely used in food enrichment as a valuable by-product of oats [10,11,12,13]. In addition, during oat processing, oat husk (OH) is also formed. Generally, OH is sold as typical animal feed [14]. In terms of chemical composition, OH is as follows: 30–35% crude fiber, 30–35% pentosans, 10–15% lignin, 4% protein, and 5% ash [15]. Moreover, OH constitutes up to 35% of the oat grain. Due to the lignocellulosic composition, OH is commonly used as material in a biorefinery process [16]. Furthermore, research by Kärkönen et al. [17] showed that it is possible to apply oats and barley hull fractions for paper and paperboard production. Dziki et al. [18] presented the by-product as a rich source of insoluble fiber and phenolic compounds and observed that the antioxidant activity of the extracts obtained from OH increased as the particle size of the micronized OH decreased. In addition, it was found that OH contains more phenolic acids than OB, especially ferulic acid [19]. Additionally, in vivo studies show the significant benefits of consuming OH as a source of insoluble fiber, including increased stool bulk and, thus, reduced constipation [20]. Supplementing traditional products, including shortbread cookies, is necessary when growing consumer expectations for healthy food. The use of OH as a functional additive in wheat cookies is convincing, and all the more so because not only can we obtain a product enriched with fiber and antioxidants, but this is also another way to dispose of a by-product. According to this paper, this is the first study to investigate the use of OH in shortbread cookie production. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of micronized oat husk (hull) addition on the physicochemical and sensory properties of shortbread cookies.

2. Materials and Methods

A graphical scheme of study approach is presented in Figure 1.

2.1. Chemicals and Raw Materials

The following basic chemicals were used in the study: 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid), Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, sodium salicylate, potassium ferricyanide, FeSO4, trichloroacetic acid, ferric chloride, and hydrogen peroxide. These chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Company (Poznan, Poland). Moreover, HCl, HNO3, micro-(Cu, Mn, and Fe) and macroelements (Na, Mg, K and Ca) standards and La2O3 and CsCl were used from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). All chemicals were of analytical grade.
Wheat flour, butter, and sugar were purchased at a local supermarket (Auchan, Poland). The flour contained 73% carbohydrates, 11% protein, 3.2% fiber, 1.2% fat, and 11.6% moisture. Micronized OH was received from FIBERCARE Sp. z o.o. company (Olkusz, Poland). The term micronization (ultra-fine grinding) refers to the reduction of particle diameters to the micrometer range [19]. OH was produced according to the method described by Dziki et al. [18]. Briefly, before being micronized, the husk was sterilized at 200 °C for 4 min using superheated steam and cooled to room temperature. The sterilized OH was micronized using an impact classifier mill and the particles with a median size (d50) equal to about 20 µm were obtained [18]. The OH contained 91.1% total dietary fiber, 3.4% ash, 1.3% protein, and 4% moisture [19].

2.2. Mineral Composition of Wheat Flour and OH

The mineral composition of wheat flour and OH was determined according to the method described in [21]. Briefly, OH and wheat flour samples were mineralized at 550 °C and extracted in 1 mL 50% HCl + 1 mL 50% HNO3. The mixture was topped up to 25 mL with distilled water. To avoid interferences, adequate dilutions with La2O3/HCl, were prepared [22]. Subsequently, the samples were analysed and determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy [21].

2.3. Dispersibility and Foaming Capacity of Flour

Wheat flour and blends of wheat flour with 5, 10, 15, and 20% of OH were used for the determination of dispersibility and foaming capacity according to the methods described in [23].

2.4. Shortbread Preparation

Shortbread cookies were prepared according to the basic recipe given in Table 1. The basic recipe for the control cookies was: 300 g flour, 200 g butter, 100 g sugar, and one fresh egg (about 80 g). Subsequently, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of the wheat flour was replaced with OH (Table 1).
In the first step, the dry ingredients were mixed for 3 min using a KitchenAid mixer, then the butter was added and all ingredients were mixed for a further 3 min until the crumble topping mass was obtained. Finally, the egg was added and the dough was mixed for 5 min at low speed. No water was added to the dough. The dough was rolled into 5 mm sheets and manually shaped using 40 mm stainless steel cutters. The cookies were baked in an electric-air oven (Rational, CMP 61, Landsberg am Lech, Germany) at 200 °C for 15 min. Prior to tests, the cookies were cooled down to room temperature (20–21 °C).

2.5. Basic Properties of Cookies

The following properties of the cookies were determined: basic chemical composition, water activity, pH, and energy value.
The basic chemical composition of the shortbread cookies was determined according to the AACC standards [24] and included moisture content (AACC, Method 44-15.02), fat content (AACC, Method 30-10.01), ash content (AACC, Method 08-01.01), protein content (AACC, Method 46-10.01), total dietary fiber content (AACC, Method 32-05.01), and the content of digestible carbohydrates was determined based on the difference from these values.
The water activity in the cookies was measured at 22 °C using a LabMaster (Novasina AG, CH-8853 Lachen, Switzerland) [25]. Two grams of samples were used for this procedure.
The pH of the dough samples was measured using a pH-meter (TESTO 206-ph2, Pruszkow, Poland).
The energy value of the cookies was calculated using the following conversion factors: protein 17 kJ/g; fat 37 kJ/g; available carbohydrates 17 kJ/g; dietary fiber 8 kJ/g [26].

2.6. Color Coordinates of Cookies

The color coordinates of the cookies, such as lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*), were determined using a using a Konica Minolta spectrophotometer (CM-3600d, Tokyo, Japan) according to the method described by Sujka et al. [27]. Moreover, the total color difference between the control and enriched cookies was calculated [28].

2.7. Cookies Texture

The texture of the cookies was measured using a universal testing machine ZWICK (Z020/TN2S, Ulm, Germany). A single cookie was cut using a 1 mm thick knife with a speed of 20 mm/min, and the values of cutting force were recorded. This test was performed sixfold for each shortbread sample. The cutting force was taken as a determinant of the cookies’ hardness.

2.8. Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity

Methanolic extracts (methanol:water, 1:1, v/v) of the cookie samples were prepared for determining total phenolic content and antioxidant activity. The total phenolic content was determined using the method described in [29] and expressed as milligrams gallic acid (GAE) per gram d.m.
Antioxidant activities against DPPH and ABTS radicals were determined according to the method described by Sujka et al. [27] and the results were expressed as the concentration that induces a response halfway between the baseline and the maximum (EC50 index) [30].

2.9. Sensory Properties

The sensory properties of the shortbread were tested using a 7-point hedonic scale, with scores ranging from 1 (dislike very much) to 7 (like very much). All cookie samples were evaluated by 40 consumers (24 women and 16 men) for color, appearance, smell, taste, texture, and overall acceptability. The consumers were informed about the aim of the study before the test and provided their approval according to the ethical committee of the university. Analysis was performed under white lighting and at a temperature of 20 °C.

2.10. Statistical Analysis

The analysis of variance was used to evaluate the data and statistical differences between the means were calculated using a Tukey test. Moreover, the correlations coefficients between the variables were determined. All tests were performed at significance level α = 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Minerals Composition

Optimal consumption of minerals plays an essential role in physiological and metabolic processes in the human body and consequently determines human health [21]. In particular, microelements can be beneficial in protecting us from cancer [31]. Table 2 presents the mineral compositions of OH and wheat flour (WF). K, Ca and Mg were the main minerals in the studied OH sample, while Cu was found in the lowest amount. Comparing the content of minerals in OH with the values obtained by other authors, it was observed that similar concentrations of determined micro- and macroelements were reported [32]. The content of such microelements as Fe and Mn were several times higher in OH compared with WF, whereas WF contained a slightly higher amount of Cu. Importantly, OH is characterized by content of macroelements such as Mg, Ca, Na several times higher than that of wheat flour. Refined WF is a mineral-poor food and should be supplemented with micro and macronutrients [21]. The results suggest that WF enriched with OH may be a good source of minerals, especially Mg, Ca and K.

3.2. Foaming Capacity and Dispersibility

The foaming capacity (FC) of OH was about twofold lower than with WF (4.83% and 10.5%, respectively). Consequently, the foaming capacity of flour blends decreased with increasing OH level, from 10.50% to 6.57% when 20% of WH (WF20) was replaced with OH (Table 3). Proteins are mainly responsible for the foaming because of their surface-active property which decreases the surface tension of water [33]. The FC refers to the amount of interfacial area that can be created by the protein [34]. Flour with high FC is usually required in bread production [35]. OH is a poor source of protein and, consequently, the FC of OH is lower. Moreover, OH was characterized by a lower value of dispersibility (69%) compared with WF (80.5). The dispersibility of OH-enriched samples decreased slightly with the addition of husk and ranged from 80.50% (WF) to 77.03% (WF20) (Table 3). Dispersibility is an index that measures how well flour or flour blends can be rehydrated with water. All the flour samples showed high dispersibility and, consequently, the possibility to reconstitute easily during mixing to fine, consistent dough [35].

3.3. Basic Properties of Cookies

Table 4 presents the results of basic composition, water activity, and pH of the control and OH-enriched cookies. A recent study showed that OH is a very rich source of insoluble fiber (91.11%) and contains about 3.4% ash [19]. As a result of this, the replacement of wheat flour with OH from 5% to 20% decreased protein content and increased ash and fiber content in the cookies: from 9.49 to 8.15%, from 0.76 to 1.24%, and from 2.92 to 17.55%, respectively. In contrast, OH had no significant influence on the fat content. Fiber content increased about sixfold when wheat flour was replaced with OH at 20% (Table 4). Consequently, the content of available carbohydrates decreased from 58.87% to 38.87% and it caused a decrease in the energy value of the cookies by about 10%. Moisture content increased from 2.51% to 3.35% with the increase in OH in the shortbread recipe. Moreover, the pH of the dough increased slightly but significantly with the percentage of husk in the shortbread recipe (from 5.76 for the control sample to 6.23 for cookies with 20% OH). Additionally, our study showed significant (α = 0.05) and positive correlations between the OH content in the cookies and pH, ash, fiber, and moisture content (r = 0.91, 0.98, 0.99, and 0.99, respectively). However, the correlations between the addition of OH and protein, available carbohydrates, and energy values were significant (α = 0.05) and negative (r = −0.97, 0.98 and 0.99, respectively).
The water activity of the shortbread cookies with OH ranged from 0.23 (cookies without OH) to 0.27 (cookies with 5% OH composition). However, there was no statistical difference in the value of water activity between the fortified cookies and the control cookies (Table 1). Water activity is a kind of predictor, which gives a chance term to stability and safety regarding microbial growth and lipid oxidation rates [36]. Liu et al. [36] showed water activity from 0.39 to 0.45 for wheat cookies and cookies based on a blend amaranth—navy bean 1:1. Aljobair [37] observed water activity for cookies enriched in clove powder from 0.36 to 0.46, but at the same time emphasized that these are safe values below the level of 0.6, which minimizes the growth of microorganisms.

3.4. Color Coordinates

The acceptability of cookies is strongly correlated with color, which is the primary feature. The changes in the color of cookies are mainly attributed to the Maillard reaction, which involves reducing sugars and amino acids and sugar caramelization at high temperatures during baking [38]. Moreover, the color of cookies strongly depends on the ingredients used. Incorporation of different plant additives into shortbread significantly changes its color and usually leads to a darker product [8]. Table 5 shows the color profile of the cookies enriched with OH. With the increased OH in the recipe, the lightness (L*) of the cookies decreased from 72.99 (for the control sample) to 63.07 (for cookies with 20% of OH) (Figure 2). The addition of OH also significantly increased the redness (a*) of shortbread (from 8.84 to 13.21) and slightly decreased the yellowness (b*). However, significant differences were found when 10% and more OH was added. Strong and significant correlations (α = 0.05) were observed between the L*, b* and the OH addition (r = −0.95 and r = 0.97, respectively) (Table 5). Similar changes in the color of cookies were observed when apple fiber powder was added to shortbread [39]. The total color difference (ΔE) increased with the amount of OH in the cookie recipe from 4.76 to 11.00. ΔE higher than 2.5 allows for distinguishing the difference between the samples. It indicates that even 5% of OH had a strong influence on the color of the cookies (Table 5). It is caused mainly by pigment content in OH. The most abundant pigment in OH is melanin. This high-molecular-weight compound is formed by the oxidation and polymerization of phenolics [40].

3.5. Cutting Force

The texture of cookies is the main parameter that decides consumers’ acceptability, especially the cutting force, which is often an indicator of shortbread hardness [3]. The cutting force (Figure 3) of the cookies increased with increased OH in the recipe from 19.9 N for the control sample to 24.1 N for the sample with 20% OH. However, significant differences between the control sample and the enriched samples were observed when OH was added at levels 15% and 20%. In the literature, the increasing hardness of cookies with fiber addition was associated with the fiber’s higher water absorption capacities [41]. Lee and Kang [42] also observed that wheat cookies with 20% and 40% oat bran in the recipe were harder than control wheat cookies, and at the same time had higher water-holding capacity. The water migrates during the baking process from the wet core to the surface and the resulting expansions and contractions influence the texture [43]. Fiber can directly bind water through polar and hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and physical enclosure [44]. Higher water content in the enriched cookies (Table 1) results in the formation of a gluten network and consequently increases the hardness of cookies [45]. The microstructure of fibers also affects the water-holding capacity and consequently hardness of cookies. OH is mainly composed of cellulose and hemicellulose, and shows fibrous structures with thread-like particles of different sizes [46]. In our research, a strong positive correlation was observed between cutting force and fiber content (r = 0.99, α = 0.05).

3.6. Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity

The total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AA) of the shortbread cookies supplemented with OH are shown in Table 6. OH caused a significant increase in total phenolic content in the cookies. In the case of the maximum fortification level, TPC increased more than twice (up to 0.40 mg GAE/g d.m.) in comparison to the control sample. Additionally, it was observed that the increasing amount of OH influenced a higher antioxidant activity expressed both by the ability to scavenge ABTS free radicals (ABTS) and the ability to neutralize DPPH free radicals (DPPH), which was noted as a decrease in the EC50 value. In the case of ABTS and DPPH, the EC50 value decreased significantly with the level of OH, from 645 mg DM (dry mass)/mL and 257.67 mg DM/mL (control sample for ABTS and DPPH, respectively) to 168.33 mg DM/mL and 103.00 mg d.m./mL (sample with 20% OH for ABTS and DPPH, respectively). The increase in TPC and AA can be explained by the bioactive compounds contained in OH. Recent studies have shown that OH is characterized by similar phenolic content and comparable antioxidant activity to oat bran [19]. OH is a rich source of phenolic acids, i.e., ferulic (dominant), caffeic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanilic, syringic, and synapic acid [18]. In our research a strong correlation was observed between TPC content and ABTS (r = −0.99, α = 0.05) and between TPC and DPPH (r = −0.98, α = 0.05). Similar correlations were found in the literature between TPC and AA for fortified wheat cakes [47,48,49,50]. Moreover, the particle size of OH influences the AA. Better extractability of bioactive compounds is found for fine than for coarse particles [51].

3.7. Sensory Analysis of Shortbread Cookies

Table 7 shows the results of the sensory evaluation of the control cookies and cookies enriched with OH using a 7-point hedonic scale. It was observed that the minimum level of OH (5%) significantly decreased the scores for appearance, color, smell and texture of the cookies in comparison to the control sample, which received the best acceptability. Importantly, a level of enrichment higher than 5% had relatively little influence on all sensory attributes, except for texture. In the case of this attribute, the linking score decreased with the percentage of OH from 5.89 for the control sample to 4.31 for cookies with 20% of OH and the particles of husk were palpable. Taking into account the overall score, the highest notes for overall acceptability were obtained for the control shortbread (5.53 on average) and the lowest for cookies with 20% OH. However, it is worth emphasizing that the replacement of wheat flour with OH from 5 to 20% had no significant influence on the overall acceptability of the cookies. There is no work so far in which OH was incorporated into cookies. On the other hand, oat bran is often used for food fortification.
Majzoobi et al. [52] suggested that it is not recommended to enrich wheat cookies with oat bran above 15%, as it reduces the quality of samples. According to Baumgartner et al. [31], high-fiber additives such as bran cause the texture, taste, and appearance of bakery products to deteriorate. During the research, scientists noticed that the maximum addition of oat bran (21%) reduces the overall acceptability by more than 25% compared to the control sample (in our study this decrease was up to 11% when micronized OH was added at 20%). Swapna and Rao [53] managed to create a satisfactory formula for wheat biscuits, in which 25% of wheat flour was successfully replaced with oats; however, they additionally used cheese.

4. Conclusions

The partial replacement of wheat flour with micronized OH led to an increase in fiber and ash content and a decrease in available carbohydrates in the shortbread. Consequently, the energy value of the cookies decreased. Moreover, as a result of this fortification, the lightness of the cookies decreased, whereas the redness increased. Crucially, micronized OH, even at the level of 20%, had relatively little influence on the overall acceptability of the cookies enriched with phenolics. As a result of this, the antioxidant activity of the OH-shortbread increased. On the other hand, the replacement of wheat flour higher than 10% caused a harder texture of cookies, which resulted in lower scores for this attribute. To sum up, OH can be a valuable byproduct for shortbread fortification. Future studies are needed to check the possibility of enrichment of other kinds of food with this additive. However, OH must be properly prepared and micronized before being used for food purposes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.D.; methodology, D.D., U.G.-D. and R.R.; software, D.D.; validation, A.K., K.L. and D.D.; formal analysis, D.D.; investigation, D.D., U.G.-D., G.C.-P. and R.R.; resources, D.D.; data curation, D.D.; writing—original draft preparation, D.D., K.L. and A.K.; writing—review and editing, D.D.; visualization, K.L. and A.K.; supervision, D.D.; project administration, D.D.; funding acquisition, D.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was performed according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical guidelines in organizing sensory evaluations and handling personal data were followed, although the study was not pre-approved by any Institutional Review Board or Ethics Committee as no invasive protocols were applied. The study consisted of sensory evaluation (appearance, color, smell, taste, texture) of cookies made of food raw materials.

Informed Consent Statement

Prior to the tests, panelists were informed about the procedures, samples, and treatments, and informed consents were obtained from all participants.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the first author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank FIBERCARE Sp z o.o. Company (Olkusz, Poland) for providing micronized fiber for research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 12 12512 g001 550
Figure 1. Graphical scheme of study approach. OH—oat husk, BCC—basic chemical composition.
Figure 1. Graphical scheme of study approach. OH—oat husk, BCC—basic chemical composition.
Applsci 12 12512 g001
Applsci 12 12512 g002 550
Figure 2. Shortbread cookies with different percentages of oat husk.
Figure 2. Shortbread cookies with different percentages of oat husk.
Applsci 12 12512 g002
Applsci 12 12512 g003 550
Figure 3. Cutting force of shortbread cookies supplemented with the oat husk. a,b—means indicated with different letters are significantly different (α = 0.05), n = 6 ± standard deviation.
Figure 3. Cutting force of shortbread cookies supplemented with the oat husk. a,b—means indicated with different letters are significantly different (α = 0.05), n = 6 ± standard deviation.
Applsci 12 12512 g003
Table
Table 1. Formulation of control and OH-enriched shortbread cookies (% of wet basis).
Table 1. Formulation of control and OH-enriched shortbread cookies (% of wet basis).
IngredientThe Level of Wheat Flour Replacement (%)
05101520
Wheat flour4543403836
Butter3030303030
Sugar1313131313
Egg1212121212
Oat husk02579
Table
Table 2. Mineral composition of wheat flour and oat husk.
Table 2. Mineral composition of wheat flour and oat husk.
Raw MaterialFeCuMnMgCaNaK
WF36.1 ± 1.3 a5.2 ± 0.3 a21.5 ± 1.6 a465.3 ± 12.3 a365.4 ± 3.9 a18.6 ± 1.0 a152.1 ± 3.5 a
OH127.4 ± 4.8 b3.2 ± 0.2 b64.0 ± 2.7 b1380.8 ± 36.2 b2150.6 ± 45.1 b121.2 ±.4.7 b5600.7 ± 78.8 b
WF—wheat flour, OH—oat husk, a,b—means indicated with different letters in columns are significantly different (α = 0.05), n = 3 ± standard deviation.
Table
Table 3. Foaming capacity and dispersibility of OH, WF and flour blends.
Table 3. Foaming capacity and dispersibility of OH, WF and flour blends.
Parameter Sample
OHWFWF5WF10WF15WF20
FC (%)4.83 ± 0.29 c10.50 ± 0.50 b9.57 ± 0.40 b7.87 ± 0.51 a8.07 ± 0.15 a6.57 ± 0.49 d
DI (%)69.00 ± 1.73 c80.50 ± 0.50 a79.53 ± 0.55 a79.17 ± 0.57 a,b78.43 ± 0.59 a,b77.03 ± 0.15 b
WF—wheat flour, OH—oat husk, FC—foaming capacity, DI—dispersibility, WF, WF5, WF10, WF15 and WF20—wheat flour with 0, 5, 10 15 and 20% of micronized oat husk, a–d—means indicated with different letters in lines are significantly different (α = 0.05), n = 3 ± standard deviation.
Table
Table 4. Basic composition, water activity, and pH of control and OH-enriched cookies.
Table 4. Basic composition, water activity, and pH of control and OH-enriched cookies.
OH
Addition [%]		Protein (%)Fat (%)Ash (%)Fiber (%)Moisture Content (%)Available
Carbohydrates (%)		Water
Activity		pHEnergy Value (kJ/100 g)
09.49 ± 0.06 c29.45 ± 0.34 a0.76 ± 0.01 a2.92 ± 0.07 a2.51 ± 0.12 a54.87 ± 0.27 e0.23 ± 0.01 a5.76 ± 0.02 b2207
59.37 ± 0.12 c30.08 ± 0.61 a0.95 ± 0.01 b6.42 ± 0.15 b2.68 ± 0.07 a,b50.50 ± 0.52 d0.27 ± 0.02 b5.96 ± 0.03 c2182
108.64 ± 0.08 b30.26 ± 0.58 a1.04 ± 0.06 b,c9.98 ± 0.12 c2.96 ± 0.12 b47.12 ± 0.46 c0.26 ± 0.00 b6.13 ± 001 a2147
158.42 ± 0.12 b30.26 ± 0.53 a1.12 ± 0.05 c13.55 ± 0.09 d3.21 ± 0.15 c,d43.44 ± 0.42 b0.26 ± 0.01 b6.17 ± 0.02 a2110
208.15 ± 0.08 a30.44 ± 0.39 a1.24 ± 0.02 d17.95 ± 0.09 e3.35 ± 0.06 d38.87 ± 0.35 a0.26 ± 0.01 b6.23 ± 0.02 d2069
a–e—means indicated with different letters in columns are significantly different (α = 0.05), n = 3 ± standard deviation.
Table
Table 5. Color coordinates and total color difference of OH-cookies.
Table 5. Color coordinates and total color difference of OH-cookies.
OH Addition
(%)		L*a*b*ΔE
072.99 ± 0.49 d8.84 ± 0.56 a32.67 ± 0.38 c-
568.55 ± 0.06 c10.48 ± 0.07 b32.63 ± 0.08 b,c4.76 ± 0.70 a
1065.19 ± 0.27 b10.56 ± 0.12 b32.03 ± 0.08 b8.04 ± 0.61 b
1563.66 ± 0.09 a12.74 ± 0.09 c30.83 ± 0.07 a10.28 ± 0.61 c
2063.05 ± 1.22 a13.21 ± 0.12 c31.00 ± 0.35 a11.00 ± 0.63 c
OH—oat husk, L*—lightness, a*—redness, b*—yellowness, ΔE—the total color difference, a–d—means indicated with different letters in columns are significantly different (α = 0.05), n = 3 ± standard deviation.
Table
Table 6. Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of control and enriched cookies.
Table 6. Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of control and enriched cookies.
OH (%)TPC
(mg GEA/g d.m.)		ABTS
EC50 (mg d.m./mL)		DPPH
EC50 (mg d.m./mL)
00.19 ± 0.00 a645.00 ± 6.56 e257.67 ± 5.51 e
50.25 ± 0.00 b437.33 ± 18.04 d179.33 ± 6.11 d
100.32 ± 0.01 c352.00 ± 5.20 c156.33 ± 3.79 c
150.36 ± 0.01 d252.00 ± 8.72 b124.00 ± 3.61 b
200.40 ± 0.00 e168.33 ± 5.51 a103.00 ± 4.58 a
OH—oat husk, TPC—total phenolic content, GAE—gallic acid, ABTS—ability to scavenge ABTS free radicals, DPPH—ability to neutralize DPPH free radicals, a–e—means indicated with different letters in columns are significantly different (α = 0.05), n = 3 ± standard deviation.
Table
Table 7. Sensory analysis of shortbread cookies supplemented with OH.
Table 7. Sensory analysis of shortbread cookies supplemented with OH.
Husk Percentage (%)AppearanceSmellTasteColorTextureOverall
05.75 ± 0.91 b6.11 ± 0.94 c5.16 ± 1.60 a6.49 ± 1.02 c5.89 ± 0.85 c5.53 ± 1.03 b
54.80 ± 0.89 a5.13 ± 1.04 a5.15 ± 0.87 a5.20 ± 0.85 a,b5.25 ± 0.97 b5.16 ± 0.66 a,b
104.85 ± 0.99 a5.22 ± 0.92 a5.16 ± 0.96 a5.29 ± 0.74 a,b4.89 ± 0.81 b5.15 ± 0.80 a,b
154.91 ± 0.78 a5.16 ± 0.94 a5.04 ± 1.05 a5.13 ± 0.64 a4.36 ± 0.72 b5.07 ± 0.47 a
205.07 ± 1.25 a5.07 ± 0.72 a5.11 ± 0.74 a5.56 ± 0.71 b4.31 ± 0.66 a4.96 ± 0.58 a
a–c—means indicated with different letters in columns are significantly different (α = 0.05), n = 3 ± standard deviation.
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Dziki, D.; Lisiecka, K.; Gawlik-Dziki, U.; Różyło, R.; Krajewska, A.; Cacak-Pietrzak, G. Shortbread Cookies Enriched with Micronized Oat Husk: Physicochemical and Sensory Properties. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12512. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412512

AMA Style

Dziki D, Lisiecka K, Gawlik-Dziki U, Różyło R, Krajewska A, Cacak-Pietrzak G. Shortbread Cookies Enriched with Micronized Oat Husk: Physicochemical and Sensory Properties. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(24):12512. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412512

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dziki, Dariusz, Katarzyna Lisiecka, Urszula Gawlik-Dziki, Renata Różyło, Anna Krajewska, and Grażyna Cacak-Pietrzak. 2022. "Shortbread Cookies Enriched with Micronized Oat Husk: Physicochemical and Sensory Properties" Applied Sciences 12, no. 24: 12512. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412512

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