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Article

M13 Bacteriophage-Assisted Synergistic Optical Enhancement of Perovskite Quantum Dots

by
Vanna Chrismas Silalahi
1,†,
Il Hyun Lee
2,†,
Minjun Kim
1,
Yudong Jang
1,
Donghan Lee
1,
Jong-Min Lee
3,4,
Vasanthan Devaraj
5,* and
Jin-Woo Oh
2,5,*
1
Department of Physics, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Nano Fusion Technology, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
3
School of Semiconductor Display Technology, Hallym University, Chuncheon 24252, Republic of Korea
4
Center of Nano Convergence Technology, Hallym University, Chuncheon 24252, Republic of Korea
5
Bio-IT Fusion Technology Research Institute, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(17), 9495; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179495
Submission received: 2 August 2023 / Revised: 17 August 2023 / Accepted: 21 August 2023 / Published: 22 August 2023
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Bacteriophages demonstrate a remarkable ability to adhere to host surfaces, thus improving their chances of reproduction. These viral entities demonstrate extreme interface properties through their highly specific and periodic peptide receptors, surpassing any manmade surface in terms of variability and adhesiveness. This intriguing quality has led to investigations into biohybrid nanostructures, wherein bacteriophages are combined with inorganic substances. Among them, cesium lead halide (CsPbI3) perovskite quantum dots (PQDs) are promising emissive materials, with their optical characteristics being vital for the advancement of light-emitting and optoelectronic apparatuses. In this study, we explored the integration of M13 bacteriophages (phages) with CsPbI3 PQDs. Our observations indicated that the photoluminescence of CsPbI3 + M13 phage was amplified 7.7-fold compared to pure CsPbI3, the lifetime of the quantum dots extended from 40.47 ns to 53.32 ns and enhanced the stability. Simulations and experimental results both demonstrate the significant role of M13 bacteriophages in achieving enhanced optical properties for PQDs. These findings confirm the significant contribution of M13 phages to enhancing the optical attributes in PQDs, laying the groundwork for innovative optoelectronic applications.

1. Introduction

In recent years, there has been considerable interest in investigating the optical properties of various types of luminescent nanoparticles. Rare earth-based nanophosphors have garnered attention for their excellent luminescence and oxygen storage properties [1,2,3]. Transition metal oxides are notable for their intriguing magnetic and catalytic properties [4,5,6], and pyrochlores display a broad spectrum of optical properties [7,8,9]. However, among these diverse nanoparticle types, photoluminescent perovskite quantum dots (PQDs) have emerged as particularly significant due to their exceptional optical properties and potential for applications in optoelectronics [10,11,12,13,14]. This interest in PQDs stems primarily from their unique advantages over traditional luminescent materials.
The high photoluminescence quantum yield of PQDs, low-cost synthesis, and compatibility with solution-processing techniques allow for the fabrication of flexible and large-area devices [15,16,17,18,19]. One of the key advantages of PQDs is their wavelength tunability, which allows for the emission of light at various wavelengths [19,20]. Moreover, the toxicity of PQDs can be managed by altering their surface chemistry, which helps reduce the release of toxic heavy metals [21,22]. This feature enhances their appeal for a wide variety of applications, including displays [23], lighting [24], and even biomedical imaging and sensing [25,26,27]. Achieving high photoluminescence efficiency is crucial for unlocking the full potential of these materials in real-world applications. Increasing photoluminescence is frequently associated with enhanced material stability. By reducing non-radiative recombination pathways and enhancing the emissive properties of PQDs, their stability can be improved, leading to longer device lifetimes [28,29,30]. Furthermore, enhancing photoluminescence involves increasing the photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY). A higher PLQY signifies a more efficient light emission, making perovskite quantum dots (PQDs) more practical for various applications [31,32].
Researchers have pursued various strategies to enhance the photoluminescence efficiency of luminescent materials. Traditional approaches include co-encapsulating rare earth-doped nanoparticles [32,33], coupling with plasmonic materials [34,35], and surface functionalization of transition metal-doped solids [36,37] or polarized molecules [38]. Although these methods can enhance optical and magnetic properties and introduce lattice defects, they have limitations, such as low efficiency, poor stability, and difficulty in precisely controlling the properties of the luminescent materials [39]. The emergence of perovskite quantum dots (PQDs) offers a promising avenue to overcome these challenges. To enhance the photoluminescence of PQDs, researchers have explored various techniques, including surface passivation [40,41,42], which involves coating the PQDs with a thin layer of organic or inorganic materials to minimize surface defects and trap states; ligand engineering [43,44], which focuses on modifying ligands attached to the PQD surface; and defect control [45], a key method for customizing the electronic and optical properties of PQDs by manipulating their defects.
One promising strategy is to couple the PQDs with biological molecules, such as proteins or peptides, which can act as templates or scaffolds for their growth and assembly [46]. This approach leverages the distinctive properties of biological molecules, including their capacity for self-assembly and specific ligand interaction, to direct the formation of well-defined PQD structures. By judiciously choosing the biological molecule and managing the coupling conditions [47,48], researchers can exercise precise control over the size, shape, and arrangement of the PQDs, which results in customized electronic and optical properties. Among these biomolecules, the M13 bacteriophage has emerged as a particularly effective platform for perovskite quantum dot synthesis and functionalization [46]. The M13 bacteriophage (Figure 1a) is a nanofibrous biomaterial with a height of approximately 880 nm and a diameter of around 6.6 nm [49,50]. The bottom and top tail ends of the M13 phage consist of p7, p9, p6, and p3 coat proteins, with 2700 copies of p8 protein on its body surface. Preliminary studies have already demonstrated the feasibility of utilizing this biomaterial to couple with perovskite quantum dots (PQDs) [46]. Furthermore, the use of the M13 bacteriophage has also enabled the formation of highly ordered structures of perovskite quantum dots, which can lead to an improved charge transport and a reduced non-radiative recombination [51]. In addition to coupling with biological molecules, another approach to improving the photoluminescence efficiency of perovskite quantum dots is using hybrid structures [47,48].
In our previous studies, the M13 phage contributed to the growth of CsPbBr3 quantum dots and formed hybrid structures, which exhibited excellent optical properties. However, the participation of biomaterials in the synthesis process may affect the stability of the synthesis and the optimization of process conditions. Here, we propose a simpler method for fabricating hybrid structures with the M13 phage that improves the photoluminescence efficiency of PQDs. When the synthesized quantum dots are mixed with the M13 phage, the quantum dots self-assemble around the M13 bacteriophage surface, forming a hybrid structure. The affinity of the M13 bacteriophage surface protein for perovskite materials is the principle behind achieving the hybrid structure in a simple way. CsPbI3 PQDs are favored over CsPbBr3 PQDs for their superior photoluminescence efficiency and wavelength tunability, primarily due to their larger exciton binding energy and narrower bandgap. The larger exciton binding energy in CsPbI3 PQDs facilitates a more efficient radiative recombination of excitons, resulting in higher photoluminescence efficiency, while the narrower bandgap enables a wider tunability of the resonance wavelength, offering more flexibility in optical applications [15,52]. Considering these advantages, we utilized the combination of the M13 phage and CsPbI3 PQDs to investigate the optical properties. This approach has demonstrated promising results in enhancing photoluminescence efficiency, holding significant implications for optoelectronic applications.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Preparation of M13 Phages

M13 phages were acquired from New England Bio-labs (Ipswich, MA, USA) and genetically engineered using recombinant DNA methods. The peptide sequence positioned at the 25th position of the N-terminus of the wild-type phage p8 coat proteins was engineered through inverse polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cloning. Genetically engineered M13 phages with four glutamic (E) acids (Alu-Glu-Glu-Glu-Glu-Asp) were confirmed through DNA sequencing analysis (Cosmo-Gentech, Seoul, Republic of Korea) [53].

2.2. Fabrication of the PQDs + M13 Phage Solution

The CsPbI3 PQDs were purchased from Mesolight (cat No. PVK-CsPbI3 with PL emission wavelength 675 nm, FWHM 34 nm, and quantum yield 78%). The PQDs were dispersed in toluene. Then, 1 mg/mL of CsPbI3 PQDs was mixed with different concentrations (0.1 mg/mL, 0.25 mg/mL, 0.5 mg/mL, 0.75 mg/mL, and 1 mg/mL) of M13 phage solutions, which were dispersed in DI water in a controlled manner.

2.3. Optical Measurements

The optical properties of the samples were studied by performing photoluminescence (PL) measurements at room temperature (RT). The PL spectra were obtained using a continuous-wave laser excitation source with a wavelength of 405 nm and an excitation density of 3.92 W/cm2 that was focused through a lens with a spot diameter of 19.5 mm on the sample. The emission peaks were observed at 675 nm, corresponding to the red regions of the visible spectrum. The obtained emission spectra were analyzed using a spectrometer (SPEX 1805) with a TE-cooled charge-coupled device (CCD). To reject scattered laser light, a Semrock long pass filter at 532 nm was applied. The time-resolved photoluminescence (PL) method with a streak camera was also utilized to measure the carrier decay rates of the PQDs. A pulse laser with a wavelength of 405 nm and a repetition rate of 20 MHz (Alphalas GmbH, Goettingen, Germany) was used to excite the PQDs and M13 samples. The emitted photons were detected using a single-photon detector (ID100, ID Quantique, Geneva, Switzerland), and the resulting time-resolved fluorescence signals were collected and processed using a TCSPC module (CD900, Edinburgh Instruments, Livingston, UK). During the TCSPC measurement, a band-pass filter with a center wavelength at each PL peak and a bandwidth of 10 nm was used to collect the emitted signal from the PQDs. The filtered signal was then detected using a single-photon detector.

2.4. UV-Visible Absorption Measurement

The ultraviolet-visible absorption spectra of the CsPbI3 PQDs solution with variant M13 phage concentration were recorded with a UV-Vis absorption spectrometer (SINCO, Pathumthani, Thailand, Model S-300) with light sources of UV-deuterium and VIS-Tungsten and wavelengths of 280–800 nm.

2.5. Density Function Theory Calculations

Density function theory (DFT) simulations were conducted using commercial software (3ds Biovia Materials Studio 2020, Dassault Systems, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) and the CASTEP (STFC) academic license packages [54]. The simulations followed two steps: first, geometry optimizations, and second, energy calculations. The model employed a generalized gradient approximation method (GGA) based on the Perdew–Burke–Ernzerhof (PBE) function with a maximum of 300 iterations and a step size of 0.2 Å [55,56]. For structural relaxations in electronic calculations, a plane-wave cut-off of 287 eV was applied. To obtain highly accurate and reliable results, a maximum SCF (self-consistent field) tolerance of 1 × 10−5 was used with a maximum of 9999 SCF cycles. The calculations utilized a Monkhorst–pack 2 × 1 × 1 k-point grid method.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Morphology and Optical Characterizations of CsPbI3 QDs with the M13 Phage

We first examined the photoluminescence of PQDs coupled with the M13 phage in solution for different concentrations. Different concentrations of the M13 phage (0.1 mg/mL, 0.25 mg/mL, 0.5 mg/mL, 0.75 mg/mL, and 1 mg/mL) are utilized when mixing with PQDs (fixed = 1 mg/mL). By varying different concentrations of the M13 phage, it is possible to investigate its role in estimating the photoluminescence properties of the perovskite quantum dots. By increasing or decreasing the concentration, we can observe any changes in the intensity or resonance wavelength. For reference, the absorbance spectrum of the M13 phage has also been measured, as shown in supporting information Figure S1. The results indicate no significant influence in the visible region. Because the M13 phage is composed of proteins, only the scattering effect is expected in the visible region.
The elongated structure allows for the binding of multiple PQDs along its length, effectively increasing its density on the nanofibrous M13 phage. The fabrication of the hybrid structure was performed using a simple technique shown in Figure 1b. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of CsPbI3 PQDs reveals tiny cubic nanocrystals with sizes ranging from 15 to 16 nm (Figure 1c). This simple technique allowed for the binding sites on the phage surface to interact with the quantum dots, promoting their self-assembly within the nanowire. As the two solutions were combined, the concentration of the PQDs on the M13 phage(s) increased, resulting in a highly organized and densely packed arrangement (see supporting information Figure S2). Figure 1d shows the absorption spectra of CsPbI3 PQDs with an absorption edge at 653 nm and a strong PL emission at 675 nm under 405 nm excitation. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the PL band is as narrow as 34 nm.
The absorption of PQDs with different M13 phage concentrations are shown in Figure 1e, which exhibits increased absorption in the longer wavelength part compared to that of pure PQDs. This enhanced absorption, particularly in the long wavelength region, can be attributed to the presence of the M13 phage(s), which acts as a scaffold for the quantum dots, allowing for their efficient incorporation into the nanowire structure [48,57]. The proximity and alignment of the PQDs within the nanofibrous structure facilitate efficient energy transfer and enhance photon absorption in the longer wavelength region. This is attributed to the strong interaction between the M13 phage scaffold and the PQDs, enabling optimal positioning and alignment of the quantum dots within the nanowire matrix.
Figure 1f displays photographs of PQD + M13 phage solutions under normal light, with the index number showing the concentration of the M13 phage in mg/mL. The results demonstrated that varying concentrations of the M13 phage led to distinct colors and transparency levels in the solution, with the highest concentration showing a transparent appearance. We assume that the higher concentrations of the M13 phage may cause stronger absorption and scattering effects, influencing the transmission of light through the mixture, and consequently altering the transparency levels. The study also observed a slight difference in appearance between the pure PQDs solution and PQDs mixed with the M13 phage, including the presence of bubbles in the M13 phage solution.

3.2. Photoluminescence Properties of CsPbI3 PQDs with the M13 Phage in Solution Phase

In Figure 2a, the PL spectra of pure CsPbI3 PQDs solution and its mixing with various concentrations of the M13 phage are compared under an excitation wavelength of 405 nm. The PL peaks of CsPbI3 PQDs in solution are centered at 675 nm, whereas the addition of the M13 phage induced a redshift of the PL peak. The PL enhancement was found to be concentration-dependent, as shown in Figure 2b. Increasing the concentration of the M13 phage from 0.1 mg/mL to 1 mg/mL resulted in a gradual increase in the PL intensity. We define the enhancement factor as I/I0, where I and I0 are the PL signals from the sample with the M13 phage and the reference sample. The highest PL enhancement of 7.7 times compared to the reference CsPbI3 PQDs is achieved with the addition of a 1 mg/mL M13 phage, whereas the lowest concentration results in an enhancement of 3 times. The concentration-dependent behavior of the M13 phage in enhancing the PL intensity of CsPbI3 PQDs can be attributed to the surface properties of the phage. At lower concentrations, the number of M13 phage particles available for binding to the PQDs is limited. As a result, fewer interactions occur, resulting in a weaker enhancement in photoluminescence (PL). On the other hand, at higher concentrations, the M13 phage particles form a dense layer on the PQDs surface, increasing the chances of interactions and leading to a stronger enhancement in photoluminescence (PL). In Figure 2c, the half-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the PL band is almost identical to 34 nm. This suggests that the size distribution of the PQDs remains consistent across different concentrations of M13. A clear redshift in the resonance PL wavelength is noted when introducing M13 phages with different concentrations as shown in the Figure 2d. This clearly outlines the role of the M13 phage. We assume this is due to surface coverage with respect to the large number of available M13 phages. For example, a higher concentration of the M13 phage may lead to a greater number of binding sites being occupied [21], leading to a greater interaction and thus a larger redshift in the PL peak.
Optical stability tests were conducted on PQDs and the M13 phage coupled PQDs without encapsulation to highlight the role of the M13 phage in enhancing stability. Supporting information Figure S3 shows the PL intensity degradation trends for both PQDs only and M13 phage-coupled PQDs over a 15-day period. The PL intensity of the PQDs declined rapidly within these 15 days, with a particularly steep drop in stability observed after the 6th day. Conversely, the M13 phage-coupled PQDs exhibited a more gradual decrease in PL intensity over the same period. The PL stability deterioration percentages were recorded, with day 1 set as 100%: For PQDs only, the 6th day was 65.2%, the 12th day was 99.3%, and the 15th day was 100%; for the M13 phage-coupled PQDs, the 6th day was 20.4%, the 12th day was 42.3%, and the 15th day was 52.3%. These findings effectively confirm the role of the M13 phage in enhancing the lifetime stability of PQDs.

3.3. Correlating the PL Enhancement Properties with the Help of DFT Simulations

By keeping ELF profile of the pure PQD model as a reference, we observe an apparent additional localization of electrons when the M13 phage is introduced. From these simulation results, we can co-relate that the increased (PQDs + M13 phage, the three E’s model versus the pure PQD model) electron density accumulation and localization of electrons can contribute to the PL enhancement as observed from the experimental data.
To understand the PL enhancement properties as observed from Section 3.2, we conducted DFT studies to determine how the M13 phages help in elevating the optical properties of PQDs. For this purpose, we used four different models as shown in Figure 3: pure PQDs model (Figure 3a,e) and M13 phage + PQDs model (Figure 3b–d,f–h). For considering increasing concentrations of M13 phages, we mimicked it with an increasing number of glutamic acid (E), which is the main sequence of the M13 phage employed. The differential charge density plots for pure PQDs and PQDs + M13 phage are displayed in Figure 3a–d. As seen from these simulated data, clear observation in an increased accumulation (yellow isosurfaces) of electron density is evident upon an increasing number of glutamic acid (not noted in the pure PQDs model). This is the same with the electron localization function (ELF) profiles of the four different models as shown in Figure 3e–h. By keeping the ELF profile of the pure PQD model as a reference, we observe apparent additional localization of electrons when the M13 phage is introduced. From these simulation results, we can establish a correlation that highlights the crucial role of the M13 phage in increasing electron density accumulation and localizing electrons, which ultimately contributes to the observed photoluminescence (PL) enhancement for PQDs, as confirmed by the experimental data.

3.4. TRPL Analysis of CsPbI3 PQDs with the M13 Phage in Solution Phase

To prove the enhancement of PQDs coupled with the M13 phage more theoretically, the TRPL spectra of the solution were measured under the excitation wavelength of a 405 nm picosecond laser diode. As shown in Figure 4, the TRPL spectra indicate that the PQDs coupled with the M13 phage exhibit a significantly higher fluorescence lifetime compared to PQDs alone. This suggests that the M13 phage coating can enhance the radiative recombination efficiency of the QDs. The biexponential TRPL decay curves can be fitted by Equation (1).
A 0 + A 1 exp − t τ 1 + A 2 exp − t τ 2
Here, A 0 represents the background signal, A 1 and A 2 represent the relative amplitude, and τ 1 and τ 2 represent the decay time constants for these components. And, the weighted decay time τ w is calculated by considering the relative amplitudes of each time constant, which is defined by τ w = ∑ i A i τ i / ∑ i A i and presented in Table 1.
The decay time enhancement for the lowest concentration of M13 was found to be 3.8 ns, and the highest concentration resulted in an enhancement of 12.8 ns. The enhanced decay times at higher concentrations could be due to the increased number of phage particles, which leads to a higher probability of photon emission. This leads to higher photoluminescence efficiency and a brighter emission from the PQDs. The interaction between the M13 phage and PQDs could be attributed to the surface modification of the PQDs, which enhances the radiative recombination rate and reduces the non-radiative processes.
In Table 1, we presented the detailed PL decay times information for PQDs versus the M13 phage-coupled PQDs. These curves were fitted using the biexponential TRPL decay curves and the relative amplitudes and decay time constants. For PQDs only: The relative amplitude values are 36.7 and 79.3; decay times are 13.4 ns and 53.8 ns; and the weighted decay time is 41.1 ns. In the case of the M13 phage-coupled PQDs: Relative amplitude values are 15.3 and 71.2; decay times are 16.7 ns and 61.2 ns; and the weighted decay time is 53.3 ns. The results indicate that the presence of the M13 phage in the PQDs sample significantly impacts the decay characteristics. Specifically, the decay time constants are longer, implying a slower decay of fluorescence. This leads to a higher weighted decay time of 53.3 ns, which signifies an extended average lifetime of the excited state when the M13 phage is present. These findings suggest that the interaction between PQDs and the M13 phage modifies the fluorescence properties of the PQDs. Additionally, the elongation in decay time constants could be ascribed to the binding of the M13 phage to the PQDs’ surface, potentially obstructing the relaxation of excited states and promoting the radiative decay pathway.
TRPL enables the direct measurement of radiative and non-radiative components of the exciton density in quantum dots. The non-radiative components of TRPL can be determined using the PLQY measurement results. The PLQY of the PQDs solution is 78%, which means the radiative component ( γ r ) is 78% and the non-radiative component ( γ n r ) is 22%, respectively. Considering there is no difference in radiative components, Equation (2) can be used to express the lifetime ratios of PQDs only (assigned as 1) and with the M13 phage (assigned as 2):
τ 1 τ 2 = τ r . PLQY τ r . PLQY = 1 / γ r 1 + γ n r 1 1 / γ r 2 + γ n r 2
Using the above equation, the non-radiative component of PQDs with the M13 phage is calculated to be 12%, while PLQY is 88%. Indeed, the role of the M13 phage becomes clear from these results, as it contributes significantly to achieving improved optical properties from PQDs.

4. Discussion

Achieving high PL enhancement, PL quantum yield, and excellent stability simultaneously has always been a challenging task. In this study, however, we were able to overcome these limitations by coupling PQDs with the M13 phage biomaterial, resulting in enhanced optical properties and improved stability. Specifically, the use of the M13 phage as a biomaterial offers a significant advantage due to their on-demand genetically engineered p8 chemistry. Optimization of complex systems involving the M13 phage has previously been demonstrated in the context of colorimetric biosensor applications that involve complex bio-inspired systems [55,58,59]. This optimization approach is based on calculations of interactions between amino acids or peptide sequences and external compounds. The versatility of this optimization methodology allows it to be applied to any applications requiring similar computational analyses, highlighting the advantages of the M13 phage. Utilizing the M13 phage as a surface modifier for PQDs has proven to be a promising approach for enhancing their photoluminescence efficiency. The concentration-dependent decay time enhancements observed in this study provide valuable insights into the behavior of M13 phage particles and their interactions with surfaces. Combining these advantages enables the realization of highly efficient applications in fields, such as display technology, sensors, optoelectronic devices, photonics, photocatalysis, solar cells, flexible devices, and photovoltaics [16,17,18,19,60,61,62,63,64]. Further research is needed to fully comprehend the mechanisms underlying the M13 phage-induced enhancement of PQD photoluminescence and to optimize the performance of these systems.

5. Summary

In summary, we have demonstrated enhanced photoluminescence and radiative lifetime properties through the integration of perovskite quantum dots with the M13 phage in the solution phase. The PL spectrum of CsPbI3 QDs with the M13 phage revealed a remarkable 7.7-fold increase in the emission intensity. The presence of the M13 phage in PQD samples significantly impacts decay characteristics, extending decay time constants, slowing fluorescence decay, and increasing the weighted decay time to 53.3 ns, indicative of an extended average lifetime of the excited state and altered fluorescence properties of the PQDs. Optical stability tests revealed that the M13 phage-coupled PQDs, without encapsulation display slower PL intensity degradation and greater lifetime stability over 15 days compared to PQDs alone, confirming the role of the M13 phage in enhancing PQD stability. These results highlight the promising potential of using the M13 phage as a surface modifier to enhance the photoluminescence properties of CsPbI3 PQDs. This approach opens doors to the development of more efficient and stable optoelectronic devices for various applications.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app13179495/s1, Figure S1: UV-vis absorbance data of a M13 phage; Figure S2: TEM image of PQDs anchored on M13 phage; Figure S3: Stability test of PQDs versus M13 phage coupled PQDs on a SiO2 substrate for 15 days in log scale graph (a) and corresponding raw data (b).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.-M.L. and V.D.; Formal analysis, V.C.S.; Supervision, D.L. and J.-W.O.; Investigation, V.C.S. and I.H.L.; Validation, V.C.S., M.K. and Y.J.; Visualization, V.C.S. and I.H.L.; Writing—original draft, V.C.S. and V.D.; Writing—review and editing, J.-M.L., V.D. and J.-W.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Korea Environmental Industry & Technology Institute (KEITI) funded by the Korean Ministry of Environment (MOE) (G232022015871) and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2021R1I1A1A01050424, NRF-2020R1A6A1A03047771, and NRF-2022M3A9E4017151). I.H.L. acknowledges the support from BK21 FOUR Program Pusan National University Research Grant, 2021.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 13 09495 g001
Figure 1. (a) A schematic diagram of the nanofibrous M13 bacteriophage. (b) A fabrication of CsPbI3 PQDs and M13 phage solutions with varying concentrations of the M13 phage. (c) The transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of CsPbI3 PQDs. The scale bar is 20 nm. (d) UV−vis absorption and PL spectra of CsPbI3 PQDs. (e) The absorption of PQDs with the M13 phage exhibit increased absorption in the region of long wavelengths as compared with only PQDs. (f) Photographs of PQD solutions and PQDs with the M13 phage under normal light.
Figure 1. (a) A schematic diagram of the nanofibrous M13 bacteriophage. (b) A fabrication of CsPbI3 PQDs and M13 phage solutions with varying concentrations of the M13 phage. (c) The transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of CsPbI3 PQDs. The scale bar is 20 nm. (d) UV−vis absorption and PL spectra of CsPbI3 PQDs. (e) The absorption of PQDs with the M13 phage exhibit increased absorption in the region of long wavelengths as compared with only PQDs. (f) Photographs of PQD solutions and PQDs with the M13 phage under normal light.
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Figure 2. (a) Photoluminescence spectra of CsPbI3 PQDs with the M13 phage in solution phase under 405 nm laser diode. (b) Maximum PL intensity obtained from PQDs with varying concentrations of M13 phage. (c) FWHM with varying concentrations of the M13 phage. (d) Resonance PL wavelength with varying concentrations of the M13 phage.
Figure 2. (a) Photoluminescence spectra of CsPbI3 PQDs with the M13 phage in solution phase under 405 nm laser diode. (b) Maximum PL intensity obtained from PQDs with varying concentrations of M13 phage. (c) FWHM with varying concentrations of the M13 phage. (d) Resonance PL wavelength with varying concentrations of the M13 phage.
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Figure 3. DFT simulations of pure PQDs and PQDs with the M13 phage. Differential charge density plots for (a) pure PQD and (b–d) an increasing concentration of M13 phages with PQD. Blue isosurfaces represent a loss in electron density and yellow isosurfaces represent the accumulation. Here, an increase in concentration (green arrow) of M13 phages is mimicked by an increasing number of glutamic acid (E as a unit model) interactions with PQDs. Colors of atoms used are as follows: Cs—purple, I—dark grey, Pb—brown, O—red, C—gray, H—white, and N—blue. Electron localization function results in (e) pure PQD and (f–h) an increasing concentration of M13 phages with PQD.
Figure 3. DFT simulations of pure PQDs and PQDs with the M13 phage. Differential charge density plots for (a) pure PQD and (b–d) an increasing concentration of M13 phages with PQD. Blue isosurfaces represent a loss in electron density and yellow isosurfaces represent the accumulation. Here, an increase in concentration (green arrow) of M13 phages is mimicked by an increasing number of glutamic acid (E as a unit model) interactions with PQDs. Colors of atoms used are as follows: Cs—purple, I—dark grey, Pb—brown, O—red, C—gray, H—white, and N—blue. Electron localization function results in (e) pure PQD and (f–h) an increasing concentration of M13 phages with PQD.
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Figure 4. (a) The TRPL spectra of PQDs coupled with the M13 phage in solution phase and (b) corresponding exciton lifetime.
Figure 4. (a) The TRPL spectra of PQDs coupled with the M13 phage in solution phase and (b) corresponding exciton lifetime.
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Table 1. PL decay times for QD glasses with different concentrations of the M13 phage.
Table 1. PL decay times for QD glasses with different concentrations of the M13 phage.
Sample A 1 τ 1  (ns) A 2 τ 2  (ns) τ w  (ns)
Only PQDs36.713.479.353.841.1
0.1 mg/mL9.1015.869.348.244.4
0.25 mg/mL24.215.568.956.145.5
0.5 mg/mL6.59.376.851.147.8
0.75 mg/mL11.58.173.457.150.4
1 mg/mL15.316.771.261.253.3
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Silalahi, V.C.; Lee, I.H.; Kim, M.; Jang, Y.; Lee, D.; Lee, J.-M.; Devaraj, V.; Oh, J.-W. M13 Bacteriophage-Assisted Synergistic Optical Enhancement of Perovskite Quantum Dots. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 9495. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179495

AMA Style

Silalahi VC, Lee IH, Kim M, Jang Y, Lee D, Lee J-M, Devaraj V, Oh J-W. M13 Bacteriophage-Assisted Synergistic Optical Enhancement of Perovskite Quantum Dots. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(17):9495. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179495

Chicago/Turabian Style

Silalahi, Vanna Chrismas, Il Hyun Lee, Minjun Kim, Yudong Jang, Donghan Lee, Jong-Min Lee, Vasanthan Devaraj, and Jin-Woo Oh. 2023. "M13 Bacteriophage-Assisted Synergistic Optical Enhancement of Perovskite Quantum Dots" Applied Sciences 13, no. 17: 9495. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179495

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