Next Article in Journal
Damping of Oscillations of a Rotary Pendulum System
Next Article in Special Issue
Avocado and Its By-Products as Natural Sources of Valuable Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Bioactives for Functional Foods and Cosmetics with Health-Promoting Properties
Previous Article in Journal
Mediating the Connection: The Role of Pain in the Relationship between Shoulder Muscle Strength, Joint Position Sense, and Sub-Acromial Impingement Syndrome
Previous Article in Special Issue
Effect of Fortification of Tahini with Natural Plant Origin Raw Materials on Its Bioactivity
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Sorbets as Functional Food Products, Unexplored Food Matrices, Their Challenges, and Advancements

by
Jackson Williams
1,
Andrew J. McKune
1,2,3,4 and
Nenad Naumovski
1,2,3,5,*
1
School of Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
2
Functional Foods and Nutrition Research (FFNR), University of Canberra, Ngunnawal Country, Canberra, ACT 2617, Australia
3
University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
4
Discipline of Biokinetics, Exercise and Leisure Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa
5
Department of Nutrition-Dietetics, School of Health Sciences and Education, Harokopio University, 17671 Athens, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(21), 11945; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111945
Submission received: 28 September 2023 / Revised: 27 October 2023 / Accepted: 30 October 2023 / Published: 1 November 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Functional Foods)

Abstract

:
Functional foods and beverages are becoming one of the leading food products on the global market today. This is predominately due to the consumer, industry and research-related interests in the use of food-derived products for the management of several chronic conditions. The diversity of currently available functional food products also provides an opportunity for the use of fruit-based sorbets as a carrier of functional ingredients. Therefore, the aim of this literature review is to explore the use of sorbets as a functional food product, which is one commercial method that can be utilized to provide health benefits, extend the shelf life of foods, and preserve nutrients and improve taste. Firstly, we provide an overview of sorbets as a functional food matrix, their development and implications for the absorption of functional ingredients in humans. We discuss the developmental considerations of functional foods, such as the technical conditions and physicochemical and organoleptic properties through which functional foods can provide beneficial health effects. These include product stability, metabolism of the functional food ingredient, its interactions with the food matrix and limitations related to its production. There is a paucity of clinical data that investigate the long-term health effects of products claiming additional functional benefits. Given the extensive potential benefits of functional bioactive food compounds and their heavy prevalence in the market, extensive research and further regulation is needed to ensure health recommendations for large populations in longitudinal clinical studies warranting any functional claim.

1. Introduction

The development of functional foods and beverages is one of the key areas that combine innovation whilst targeting consumers’ needs. Since their inception, functional foods have been defined or referred to as foods or beverages that claim to provide benefits beyond the existing nutrition found within the original product [1]. The value of the global functional food market (including beverages) was estimated at USD 203.64 billion in 2022 [2]. Along with the development of functional foods comes the increase in demand for various types of supplements, beverages and food products, which also drives this growth [3]. Furthermore, the consumer market for functional foods has shown continuous annual growth patterns, with values projected to exceed USD 229 billion by the end of 2023 [2]. The market for functional foods is predominately dominated by the USA (35%); when combined with European countries (32%) and Japan (25%), these three markets contribute to approximately 90% of total functional food sales globally [4]. Japan initially pioneered the development of functional foods, with active sales of these types of foods since the 1930s. Furthermore, the increase in Japan’s aging population is associated with an increased prevalence of health problems and related healthcare costs. This provided a rationale for the support of functional food research programs, prompting the development of foods for specific health uses [4]. The development and marketing aspects of functional foods are complex and often associated with the relatively high expenses required to create a new and innovative food product. In addition, several food production aspects must also be taken into consideration, such as the technical conditions and physicochemical and kinetic properties that will allow a functional food product to produce its beneficial health effects whilst minimizing the likelihood of risk to human health [5].
The addition of bioactive compounds to increase the functionality of a food product has attracted growing interest from the commercial food industry. Current research is only just beginning to unearth the potential health outcomes of combining functional bioactive compounds within marketable food items [1]. The health outcomes of functional food products range from prevention aspects related to various diseases to improving health status and potentially overall quality of life. Likewise, current trends in the food industry regularly change in response to consumer demand, and this is apparent especially in areas such as health and fitness. A key trend is the increased awareness and education surrounding the relationship between food constituents and health, resulting in food manufacturers shifting towards products that maintain a strong health position [6]. For instance, to promote healthy bone development, it is suggested that the consumption of calcium-rich foods is necessary in times of rapid physiological growth. Therefore, children who may not have access to calcium-rich foods or those presenting calcium deficiencies may benefit from the fortification of food products with calcium to increase bioavailability [7].
Numerous functional food products already exist, including dairy products, bread, juice and children’s cereals, which are commonly found in regions such as North America, northern Europe, including the United Kingdom, and to some extent in Australia. The increased market requirements, variety of products and consumption of functional foods are also associated with the increase of health-conscious consumers as well as new and existing food consumption trends that contribute to the consumer maintaining a healthy lifestyle without adjusting their current dietary habits [8,9,10,11].
Functional food development must also address the health ’functionality’ of the bioactive ingredient of interest, the benefits and interactions in the body and the safety and stability of the product. As such, several considerations must be taken into account during food product development, such as the stability of the product related to changes in pH, salt and sugars, the metabolism of the functional ingredient and the interactions between the functional ingredient and food matrix composition. Although all foods are considered ‘functional’ from a holistic perspective, it is essential to highlight that the active ingredients in their pure forms might not necessarily possess the same functionality once embedded in the food matrix or when consumed, thus warranting the need for clinical testing to investigate proposed functionality claims.
Functional foods can be grouped based on the composition and properties of the food matrix. Examples of these include food products that are purposely modified by enrichment with bioactive compounds, foods with bioactive components removed, added specialized synthetic food ingredients, or their combination [12]. Examples of these functional foods with their added ingredients include cholesterol-lowering margarine (phytosterols), cereals and juices (folate), dairy products (calcium enriched), yoghurts with added non-dairy probiotics, gluten-free foods (pea protein), sorbets, and more recently, the integration of different foods (hemp, kale) and various seeds (chia) and berries (acai) into food items (Table 1) [13,14,15,16].
Selecting a functional ingredient to address specific health problems is one of many steps in functional food development. For instance, plant bioactives have been investigated for their ability to improve cognition due to the presence of B vitamins [17] and curcumin [18], which show promise in delaying the progression of cognitive decline. However, more novel plant bioactives are frequently being added to functional foods to promote healthy aging, including a variety of different mushrooms [19], nootropic agents to improve health status [20] and the amino acid L-theanine (L-THE) to reduce stress outcomes and improve cognition [21,22].
Table 1. Selection of functional food ingredients and their proposed health claims in Australia and New Zealand.
Table 1. Selection of functional food ingredients and their proposed health claims in Australia and New Zealand.
IngredientProposed Functional Food Health ClaimRef
Plant sterols and stanolsMargarineBoth plant sterols and stanols appear to lower blood LDL-C when consumed (1.5 to 3 g/day) with foods.[23]
Folate/folic acidCerealsThe prevention of embryological neural tube defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly.[24]
Vitamin D and calciumMilks and JuicesFortification of Vitamin D and calcium potentially reduce future health burdens from osteoporotic fractures.[25]
IodineBreadFortification of iodine in bread products in New Zealand positively contributes to 51% of iodine intake in developing children with a mean iodine intake of 35 μg/day.[26]
Omega 3EggsConsumption of omega 3-enriched chicken eggs may provide extended health benefits to consumers by increasing total omega 3 status.[27]
Note: LDL-C; low density lipoprotein cholesterol.
Therefore, the specific aims of this brief literature review are to define functional foods from the existing literature and provide a detailed review of functional food vehicles and the considerations required for their development while investigating the physicochemical and formulation aspects of these food products with a specific focus on sorbet.

2. Functional Food Vehicles

There are a variety of existing functional food products available on the current market [7]. Numerous products exist in the Australian market, such as calcium-enriched milk (Paul’s physical ©), cereals (Uncle Toby’s Plus Calcium ©) and soy milks (PureHarvest Soy enriched with Calcium ©). Likewise, there is an abundance of functional foods containing folate as a prophylaxis for the in utero development of neural tube defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly [28,29,30], including juices (Berri Orange Juice ©), cereals (Kellogg’s All Bran © and Sanitarium Weet-Bix ©) and extracts (Vegemite ©). In addition to the mandatory fortification of flour [7], there are also attempts to fortify a variety of functional frozen products, such as ice creams and sorbets, with bioactive ingredients. This includes amaranth-infused lemon sorbet [31], epigallocatechin gallate in strawberry sorbet [32], FroPro © whey protein chocolate ice cream, low-caloric ice creams (Halo Top ©) and Cornelian cherry-infused ice cream high in vitamin C [33].

2.1. Sorbet as a Potential Functional Food

Among the functional products such as breads, berries and vegetables, frozen foods such as sorbets consumed among global populations are gaining attention. Sorbets as a functional food is one commercial method used to provide health benefits, extend food storability, preserve nutrients and provide palatability to the consumer [34,35]. Specifically, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) classifies sorbets as a frozen water-based dessert that comprise two main ingredients: fruit juice and sugar (among other ingredients) [36].
Recently, sorbets have been used as a vehicle to deliver compounds to the body. A recent article showed that amaranth proteins could be embedded within the matrix of lemon sorbet as a potential functional protein source to increase bioactive peptides and antithrombotic activity [31]. Likewise, avocado, kiwi, honey melon, yellow melon and mango sorbets have also been studied with the embedded prebiotic inulin, which ultimately increased the organoleptic and pro-health features of the sorbets [37].
An Integral part of the development of a functional sorbet is evaluating the stability of the food matrix and the functional ingredient in its storage environment to ensure that the functionality of the target ingredient is not compromised. Several properties of the sorbet must be considered, such as acidity, moisture content and the addition of stabilizers. Furthermore, the release kinetics of the incorporated bioactive is dependent on numerous factors, including food vehicle choice of juice, interaction with other compounds, overcoming absorption problems and the overall toxicity of the functional food ingredient. The addition of functional bioactives can also elicit undesirable flavors and potentially alter the overall stability of the product. Therefore, it is essential to consider the current trends that exist and create techniques to develop a functional food sorbet [38].

2.2. Developmental Considerations for a Functional Sorbet

2.2.1. Acidity

The optimal pH of functional food sorbets helps maintain their stability, assists with cost-effective production methods and avoids causing potential health problems. The pH of sorbets is dependent on the overall composition of the fruit juice, and to extend the shelf life as well as increase the integrity of the added ingredient, changing the pH environment is one of many different approaches used to maintain the stability of the added bioactive [39]. For instance, green tea constituents such as tea polyphenols and amino acids present a more comprehensive stability range in different pH environments in which they are highly pH-dependent (pH 3–6), especially favoring acidic conditions [40]. One example is the stability of the green tea amino acid L-THE, which is maintained between pH 5–6 in ‘normal’ conditions; however, the likelihood of degradation increases when placed into an environment outside its stability range. In contrast, different variations in pH can impair the food or beverage matrix. For example, during the wine aging process, if the pH during the bottling process does not fall between acceptable ranges (pH 3.4–3.8 for red wines), the aging of the wine may become compromised, resulting in a faulty product [41].

2.2.2. Moisture Content and Microbial Growth

Moisture content is one of the critical aspects considered when designing a functional food vehicle (in the form of a sorbet) due to its relationship with microbial growth and storage temperature [42]. Water activity (aw) is a direct measurement of the degree to which water found within a food system is available to enable metabolic reactions [43]. In many fresh foods, the aw exceeds 0.95, and over time the aw may decrease slowly (postproduction) due to environmental conditions such as exposure to microorganisms, atmospheric conditions and sunlight, for instance. Furthermore, bacteria require a high water content environment to cause food spoilage (aw > 0.91), with Gram-negative bacteria generally needing a higher aw than Gram-positive bacteria, while fungi can grow in as low as aw 0.80 [43].
The stagnating effect on microbial growth is believed to occur due to the lack of substrates in the food product required for exponential growth and the limiting factor of oxygen, which effectively starves microbes, leading to inactivation [42,44]. Regarding storage temperature, a frozen food vehicle such as sorbet is one delivery method that allows manufacturers to halt the activities of microorganisms that can potentially spoil the food product. Likewise, frozen foods are associated with fewer outbreaks of foodborne illness, potentially indicating that some microorganisms and pathogens can be killed by some commercial freezing process pre-treatments [45].

2.2.3. Reduction of Microbial Growth

Similar to the osmotic mechanism of salts, sugars in food decrease aw [44]. Sugars act on cellular organisms via osmosis, drawing moisture out through a membrane to reach an equilibrium with the food product [46,47]. As a result, sugars have a profound effect on stagnating microbial growth. However, as sugars can be easily broken down through fermentation, it is essential to combine techniques such as freezing processes that halt microbial formation or implement the addition of stabilizers to prevent degradation of the food product. As a result, it is worth postulating that increasing the stability of a frozen functional sorbet matrix via the addition of microbial growth inhibitors such sugars may also increase the stability of the added functional bioactive compound and extend shelf life.

2.2.4. Stabilizers

Stabilizers are added to ice creams and sorbets to provide smoothness in body and texture, reduce ice crystal growth during storage, as well as increase the stability of proteins. A relatively recent example is the addition of cellulose nanofibrils, which are a fibrous banana extract that have reduced the melting rate as well as extended the shelf life of ice creams and improved their sensory properties [48]. A second example is the protective effects that sugars have over proteins exposed to heat treatments during manufacturing processes [49,50]. Sugars stabilize proteins by inducing hydration via hydrogen bonding mechanisms to folded protein structures by acting as a substitute for water [51], as well as inhibiting heat coagulation that causes denaturation [52]. Reducing sugars, such as trehalose, are considered as exceptional protein stabilizers, as they are not affected by color and flavor changes that occur during denaturation processes such as the Maillard reaction [49]. This is due to trehalose’s structural rigidity, which allows this reducing sugar to show high heat and pH stability, as well as retaining enzyme activity in a solution in its freeze-dried state. Trehalose, in turn, is an ideal ingredient for use in the industrial food and pharmaceutical industries [49]. Examples of how this potentially can benefit human consumption are during the development of functional foods that contain added proteins and amino acids, which may become exposed to high heat. This includes dairy products prior to freezing, as well as heat-treating fruit juices as a base for sorbet production to eliminate microbes.
Similarly, foods that require below 0 °C storage conditions, such as ice creams and sorbets, benefit from the addition of stabilizers. Stabilizing sugars such as oligosaccharides can form more hydrogen bonds during freeze-drying processes, which decreases denaturation as well as improves packing density [53]. The addition of traditional stabilizers such as gums (guar, locust bean and cellulose gum) also influences the viscosity and rheological properties of ice creams, which reduce the degree of ice crystal growth and result in improved stability and texture [34]. Similarly, the addition of whey proteins into a sorbet acts as a stabilizer, as whey proteins have a strong water-binding capacity that results in less free water being available to crystallize during the freezing process [34].

3. Compound Interactions between the Sorbet Matrix and Digestive System

Metabolism of the Functional Ingredients

There are several molecules identified in foods that potentially react or interact with bioactive compounds, which can reduce bioavailability. Appropriate fruit selection to produce a functional sorbet is essential to ensure that the selected bioactive does not bind to the food matrix or interact with other compounds. For any bioactive to reach systemic circulation, it must pass several phases of digestion, which can lead to drug–food interactions and food–food interactions that disrupt the effectiveness of the added bioactive compound (Table 2). These interactions potentially affect the absorption, distribution, elimination and metabolism of the compound [54]. This commonly occurs when multiple compounds interact and have a synergistic or antagonistic effect on one another.
It is also important to consider metabolic systems responsible for the breakdown of substrates in the body, which can have synergistic or antagonistic effects on the body. For example, the cytochrome P450 (CYP), an essential system of haem-proteins, is involved in the oxidative and reductive metabolism of food and drugs in the body [55]. Enzymes of the CYP system can be inhibited or up-regulated by food intake and potentially lead to toxic concentrations of other consumed compounds in the body metabolized by the same CYP system [56]. Consequently, this may inhibit or induce the absorption, digestion and dispersion of substrates into the body. Foods such as grapefruit juice (commonly used for sorbet) have similar effects to medications such as erythromycin, which are inhibitors of CYP and decrease CYP enzymatic activity, potentially leading to increased concentrations of other ingested substrates. Besides drug interactions, food–food interactions are known to increase the absorption of certain nutrients; however, their potential side effects vary (Table 3) [57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64].
Table 2. Interactions between commonly consumed endogenous or exogenous compounds.
Table 2. Interactions between commonly consumed endogenous or exogenous compounds.
Type of InteractionCompoundsType of StudyFindingReference
Drug–foodCyclosporine and grapefruit juiceSystematic review and meta-analysisSeven studies (n = 98) indicated that administration of grapefruit juice increased the plasma concentrations of cyclosporine.[65]
Drug–foodSt John’s Wort and indinavirClinical trialFifteen-day oral administration of St John’s Wort significantly reduced plasma indinavir levels in male Wistar Rats.[66]
Drug–foodAngiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and potassium ReviewFoods high in potassium must be considered by physicians prescribing angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors to reduce the incidence of hyperkalaemia.[67]
Drug–foodRupatadine and high-fat breakfastClinical trialRupatadine, an antiallergic medication with dual peripheral antihistamine H1 activity, in combination with food increased rupatadines bioavailability.[68]
Food–foodCoffee and ironCross-sectional studyData from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (n = 27,071) indicated that increased coffee intake was strongly associated with decreased serum ferritin concentrations.[69]
Food–foodVitamin C and iron ReviewVitamin C consumption aids in regulating iron metabolism by increasing transferrin and non-transferrin uptake and decreases cellular iron efflux.[70]
Food–foodVitamin D and calcium Systematic reviewVitamin D increases intestinal calcium absorption; however, the use of vitamin D in association with calcium shows inconsistent findings regarding health outcomes such as bone health, cardiovascular disease and cancer outcomes.[71]

4. Overcoming Absorption Issues

4.1. Nanoencapsulation

Various factors could potentially alter the integrity of ingested functional food compounds. For instance, the compounds with low stability in high pH environments may have reduced dispersion, digestion and absorption into the body when exposed to high pH conditions such as those experienced in the small intestine (Figure 1) [72]. As a result, residual amounts of compounds that remain post-consumption may become insufficient to produce desirable, beneficial effects in a pH environment not suited to the specific compounds’ pH stability range [73].
Nanoencapsulation is one of the methods that is used to overcome this potential issue. Nanoencapsulation works by the principle of entrapping the active ingredients in a core surrounded by secondary materials (proteins, minerals) to form a nano-sized-capsule, protecting the core from the environment. Therefore, this technique provides a promising rationale to overcome the degradation of the substance outside of its pH range within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract [74]. Furthermore, nanoencapsulation techniques in the food industry also allow greater product stability, enhancing flavor as well as increasing the overall bioavailability of a food item [74,75]. For instance, the stability of folic acid can be maintained when incorporated into iodized salts. However, it is suggested that folate incorporated within encapsulated premixes, especially with added salt, allows both active compounds to be separate. This has the potential to improve the stability and consumer bioavailability of the product [76]. These bioactive protective mediums can be permanent or developed so that changes in pH or differing enzyme activity can enable the controlled release of the core’s constituents once consumed. One bioactive that could potentially be incorporated into functional sorbets using nanoencapsulation as an adjunct treatment for diseases including atherosclerosis, heart failure and Alzheimer’s disease is curcumin. Curcumin has relatively poor chemical stability and low bioavailability (low water solubility and fast transient metabolism) and therefore has generated significant interest in the potential to be delivered via nanoencapsulation technology to improve absorption and thus improve treatment outcomes [77,78].

4.2. Lipid-Based Delivery Systems

Another method to overcome absorption problems is the use of lipids to carry compounds of interest around the body, also known as a ‘lipid-based drug delivery system’ (LDS). Although lipids are not commonly found in sorbets (as sorbets are water-based food products), the use and application of this technology is potentially transferable to the use of sorbets as functional foods. This technique has gained significant interest in the delivery of compounds that have low water solubility. The LDS technique improves the absorption and bioavailability of food bioactives via influencing factors such as dispersion, digestion and absorption [79]. Several functional food products already exist that utilize this method of delivery. Some of these include functional bread with enriched omega-3 fatty acids that incorporate high amylose corn starch to form nano complexes alongside flax seed oil incorporated into the bread matrix [80]. Lipid-based technologies are also applied as an approach to targeting the time-controlled and site-specific release of compounds that have varying molecular weights [81]. One of the benefits of this type of delivery system is responding positively to the integration of a surfactant, which can lower the surface tension and increase the dispersion and bioavailability of desired lipophilic compounds [82]. Therefore, incorporating bioactives into carrier particles is one method that may allow functional foods to overcome the inherent restraints faced when dealing with improving the bioavailability of bioactive constituents [78].

5. Trends for Functional Sorbets

5.1. Improvements in Product Acceptance

There are several considerations required for consumer acceptance of a food product. Moisture content contributes to the overall acceptance, particularly to the overall taste, texture and appearance at the time of producing the product and over the storage period [83]. For instance, the grittiness of ice creams or sorbets occurs due to poor manufacturing processes that result in the over-crystallization of solids and liquids, as well as lactose crystallization. Similarly, recrystallization (Ostwal ripening) and its formation in the post-production phase can be attributed to the change in temperatures during product storage due to melting of smaller formed crystals and the movement of the subsequent melted liquid to the surface of crystals with larger diameters [84,85,86]. Over-crystallization can be avoided through methods such as rapid cooling to the desired temperature below the melting point of that food product [35,87]. The same effect has also been observed in solid-state foods such as meats and vegetables through processes known as ‘snap freezing’ that aim to eliminate the formation of crystallized ice particles within the food matrix [88]. Other methods for controlling the ice particle formation in foods have also been tested, with promising results such as pressure shifting and ultrasonic and dehydro-freezing [89]. Similarly, methods that include the incorporation of so-called ‘antifreeze’ proteins that act as a cryoprotectant have also shown promising results by improving overall consumer acceptance with regard to improving texture and viscosity [88].

5.2. Enhancing Taste

Consumer acceptance of food products is also affected by additives such as salt and sugars. Salt content is mostly determined by the consumers preferentially [90], although, despite consumer influence, salt enhances the flavor profile of foods. Salt elicits suppression effects of bitter foods [91,92] by modulating interactions of a subset of taste receptors (TAS2R38) [38,93,94,95]. The addition of salt into functional food products can therefore be utilized when bitter compounds (cocoa flavonoids and green tea extracts) are added to the matrix [21,38,96,97].
Likewise, the favorable response humans have towards the taste sensation of sweetness is linked to the brain responses associated with pleasure, happiness and reward [49,98]. A variety of sweet compounds exist, such as sugars (mono-, di- and poly-saccharides) [99], sweeteners (stevia, xylitol, saccharine and erythritol) [100,101] and amino acids (D-tryptophan, L-THE) [21], as well as taste-altering proteins. The addition of sweet compounds in foods such as fortified dairy products (calcium and vitamin D), therefore, is one method to potentially increase the likelihood that the food product is consumed [102].

5.3. Health Trends

The trends towards healthier food consumption have increased rapidly over the past decade, mainly due to the rise in consumer food knowledge [103]. For instance, a study by Vella et al. (2014) administered a questionnaire regarding functional foods that assessed consumption, motivating factors for consumption and awareness of health claims. The study found that among older adults, functional food consumption was high. However, there is a need to improve transparency regarding functional foods in line with nutrition and health regulations such as those specified within the EU, where it is required that any nutrition claims are clear, accurate and based on scientific evidence [104,105]. It has also been postulated that sodium intake is one of the most common nutrients that potentially determine a consumer’s increase in functional food consumption [106]. In one study, it was also noted that young participants were more likely to be influenced by the health attributes of a specific product, including fat and sugar content [106]. As such, current health guidelines are attributable to current food trends focusing on reducing salt consumption, especially considering the rise in mortality that currently occurs as a result of hypertension, cardiovascular disease and stroke [107,108].
Overconsumption of sugars is one underlying factor contributing to the rise in global obesity [102]. Obesity is a public health issue, placing a burden on public health systems and increasing healthcare costs and related health outcomes such as cardiovascular disease, stroke, metabolic syndrome, diabetes and cancer [109]. As a result, improving the health status of functional foods by lowering their total energy content through sugar reduction is one method that may drive consumer consumption, which can be achieved through the addition of low-energy natural sweeteners such as Stevia, erythritol and Monk fruit extracts into the food matrix [101]. One of the most significant difficulties in promoting the consumption of functional low-energy sweeteners is replicating the taste and texture of the ‘original’ products. The natural sweetener Stevia is produced from the South American plant Stevia rebaudiana, with a sweet flavor almost 200–300 times stronger than sucrose. The consumption of Stevia is related to having a bitter metallic taste associated with aspartame or erythritol, which it was combined with in its first-generation development. Other sweeteners such as maltitol are preferentially incorporated into ice creams. These compounds also reduce the total energy in foods whilst maintaining taste. New and innovative methods also exist, such as altering the molecular structures of sugar, allowing for better dissolving on the tongue surface to increase the sensation of sweetness whilst maintaining palatability [110].
The attribution of health benefits to a functional food must be based on thorough scientific evidence from well-designed clinical trials. In practice, this is highlighted by the recent trends of supplementing antioxidants into foods and powdered supplements to improve the functional characteristics of the product [111]. Current evidence also postulates that chronic consumption of these supplements can be detrimental to the body and in excess can potentially be carcinogenic [112]. Given the potential benefits of functional food bioactive compounds, extensive research is warranted to explore their proposed claims on health further.

6. Limitations

It is crucial to consider and implement the scaffold procedures required for functional food development to avoid negative implications and ensure functional foods remain viable food sources.
There is limited clinical evidence that considers the effect of bioactive ingredients in their pure form against those incorporated within functional food products in both acute and long-term settings. Whilst there appears to be an oversupply of functional food products fortified with bioactive compounds that advertise their intention to promote health, research and regulatory scrutiny underpinning these health claims specific to each marketable food product is in short supply. Non-adherence to medications is also an increasing problem in clinical and research settings [113], with a relatively large gap in the literature concerning healthcare providers and those who consume medications regularly. There is a need to focus on functional food interventions that address behavioral strategies, especially ‘habit-based’ interventions such as consuming foods with added medicines or bioactive ingredients.

7. Conclusions

Functional foods are foods or beverages that claim to provide nutritional benefits beyond those found in the original food product. The development of these products can be complex, costly and require an integrated and multidisciplinary approach during all stages of development. Considering the scale of the current global functional food market, the use of sorbets as a relatively simple food matrix and carrier of active functional ingredients provides the basis for the development of several different functional food products. Furthermore, the use of sorbets can also be seen as a potential solution to some of the barriers identified with the consumption of these food products and may provide an opportunity for the easier transition of these foods into an everyday diet. In this review, we have highlighted the current opportunities, complexities and technological and health-related considerations for the use of sorbets as carriers and functional foods. This also includes the use of a variety of different ingredients (stabilizers, sweeteners, proteins) and physicochemical and organoleptic properties which allow functional foods to produce beneficial health outcomes.
Given the rise in technological advancements and innovations in food preparation and the delivery and design of new food matrices, sweeteners and different conjugates, sorbets provide an excellent opportunity for the foundation of functional food products. Sorbets should also be considered for the valorization of food waste and incorporation of underutilized and food waste ingredients. This approach can aim to implement the zero-waste food production cycles with utilizing all components of the raw food material. Furthermore, extensive research is also needed to investigate the use of these food products and health recommendations for large populations. Emphasis should be placed on functional food interventions that focus on behavioral strategies, particularly habit-based interventions such as the consumption of medications or foods containing bioactive ingredients.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.W. and N.N.; methodology, J.W. and N.N.; investigation, J.W.; resources, N.N. and A.J.M.; data curation, J.W.; writing—original draft preparation, J.W.; writing—review and editing, J.W., N.N. and A.J.M.; supervision, N.N. and A.J.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge Nathan D’Cunha for reading the first draft of this manuscript while the text was in its thesis form.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Srikaeo, K. Biotechnological tools in the production of functional cereal-based beverages. In Biotechnological Progress and Beverage Consumption; Grumezescu, A.M., Holban, A.M., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2020; pp. 149–193. [Google Scholar]
  2. Research_and_Markets. Functional Foods Global Market Report 2023. Available online: https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/5733821/functional-foods-global-market-report#:~:text=The%20global%20functional%20foods%20market,least%20in%20the%20short%20term (accessed on 21 September 2023).
  3. Harrison, L.; Smith, R. Developing food products for consumers concerned with physical activity, sports, and fitness. In Developing Food Products for Consumers with Specific Dietary Needs; Osborn, S., Morley, W., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2016; pp. 215–239. [Google Scholar]
  4. Bozkurt, F.; Ergen, A.; İnci, B. The impact of attitude, consumer innovativeness and interpersonal influence on functional food consumption. Int. Bus. Res. 2016, 9, 79. [Google Scholar]
  5. Siró, I.; Kápolna, E.; Kápolna, B.; Lugasi, A. Functional food. Product development, marketing and consumer acceptance—A review. Appetite 2008, 51, 456–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. DiPietro, R.B.; Remar, D.; Parsa, H.G. Health consciousness, menu information, and consumers’ purchase intentions: An empirical investigation. J. Foodserv. Bus. Res. 2016, 19, 497–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Mesías, M.; Seiquer, I.; Navarro, M.P. Calcium nutrition in adolescence. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2011, 51, 195–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Chen, M.-F. The joint moderating effect of health consciousness and healthy lifestyle on consumers’ willingness to use functional foods in Taiwan. Appetite 2011, 57, 253–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Liu, R.; Pieniak, Z.; Verbeke, W. Consumers’ attitudes and behaviour towards safe food in China: A review. Food Control 2013, 33, 93–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Huang, L.; Bai, L.; Zhang, X.; Gong, S. Re-understanding the antecedents of functional foods purchase: Mediating effect of purchase attitude and moderating effect of food neophobia. Food Qual. Prefer. 2019, 73, 266–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Roddy, G.; Cowan, C.A.; Hutchinson, G. Consumer attitudes and behaviour to organic foods in Ireland. J. Int. Consum. Mark. 1996, 9, 41–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Henry, C.J. Functional foods. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 64, 657–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. van den Driessche, J.J.; Plat, J.; Mensink, R.P. Effects of superfoods on risk factors of metabolic syndrome: A systematic review of human intervention trials. Food Funct. 2018, 9, 1944–1966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Wan, M.L.Y.; Ling, K.H.; El-Nezami, H.; Wang, M.F. Influence of functional food components on gut health. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59, 1927–1936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Lu, Z.X.; He, J.F.; Zhang, Y.C.; Bing, D.J. Composition, physicochemical properties of pea protein and its application in functional foods. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, 60, 2593–2605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Min, M.; Bunt, C.R.; Mason, S.L.; Hussain, M.A. Non-dairy probiotic food products: An emerging group of functional foods. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59, 2626–2641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. D’Cunha, N.M.; Georgousopoulou, E.N.; Dadigamuwage, L.; Kellett, J.; Panagiotakos, D.B.; Thomas, J.; McKune, A.J.; Mellor, D.D.; Naumovski, N. Effect of long-term nutraceutical and dietary supplement use on cognition in the elderly: A 10-year systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Br. J. Nutr. 2018, 119, 280–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Seddon, N.; D’Cunha, N.; Mellor, D.; McKune, A.; Georgousopoulou, E.; Panagiotakos, D.; Kellett, J.; Naumovski, N. Effects of curcumin on cognitive function—A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Explor. Res. Hypothesis Med. 2019, 4, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Lee, W.; Fujihashi, A.; Govindarajulu, M.; Ramesh, S.; Deruiter, J.; Majrashi, M.; Almaghrabi, M.; Nadar, R.M.; Moore, T.; Agrawal, D.C.; et al. Role of mushrooms in neurodegenerative diseases. In Medicinal Mushrooms: Recent Progress in Research and Development; Agrawal, D.C., Dhanasekaran, M., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2019; pp. 223–249. [Google Scholar]
  20. Onaolapo, A.Y.; Obelawo, A.Y.; Onaolapo, O.J. Brain ageing, cognition and diet: A review of the emerging roles of food-based nootropics in mitigating age-related memory decline. Curr. Aging Sci. 2019, 12, 2–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Williams, J.; Kellett, J.; Roach, P.D.; McKune, A.; Mellor, D.; Thomas, J.; Naumovski, N. L-theanine as a functional food additive: Its role in disease prevention and health promotion. Beverages 2016, 2, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Williams, J.L.; Everett, J.M.; D’Cunha, N.M.; Sergi, D.; Georgousopoulou, E.N.; Keegan, R.J.; McKune, A.J.; Mellor, D.; Anstice, N.; Naumovski, N. The effects of green tea amino acid l-theanine consumption on the ability to manage stress and anxiety levels: A systematic review. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2019, 75, 12–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Trautwein, E.A.; Vermeer, M.A.; Hiemstra, H.; Ras, R.T. Ldl-cholesterol lowering of plant sterols and stanols—Which factors influence their efficacy? Nutrients 2018, 10, 1262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Iglesia, I.; Mouratidou, T.; González-Gross, M.; Huybrechts, I.; Breidenassel, C.; Santabárbara, J.; Díaz, L.-E.; Hällström, L.; De Henauw, S.; Gottrand, F.; et al. Foods contributing to vitamin b6, folate, and vitamin b12 intakes and biomarkers status in european adolescents: The HELENA study. Eur. J. Nutr. 2017, 56, 1767–1782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Sandmann, A.; Amling, M.; Barvencik, F.; König, H.-H.; Bleibler, F. Economic evaluation of vitamin d and calcium food fortification for fracture prevention in germany. Public Health Nutr. 2017, 20, 1874–1883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Jones, E.; McLean, R.; Davies, B.; Hawkins, R.; Meiklejohn, E.; Ma, Z.F.; Skeaff, S. Adequate iodine status in New Zealand school children post-fortification of bread with iodised salt. Nutrients 2016, 8, 298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Ganesan, B.; Brothersen, C.; McMahon, D.J. Fortification of foods with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014, 54, 98–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. van Gool, J.D.; Hirche, H.; Lax, H.; De Schaepdrijver, L. Folic acid and primary prevention of neural tube defects: A review. Reprod. Toxicol. 2018, 80, 73–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Wald, N.; Sneddon, J.; Densem, J.; Frost, C.; Stone, R. Prevention of neural tube defects: Results of the medical research council vitamin study. Lancet 1991, 338, 131–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Osterhues, A.; Ali, N.S.; Michels, K.B. The role of folic acid fortification in neural tube defects: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 53, 1180–1190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Malgor, M.; Sabbione, A.C.; Scilingo, A. Amaranth lemon sorbet, elaboration of a potential functional food. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2020, 75, 404–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Naumovski, N.; Blades, B.L.; Roach, P.D. Food inhibits the oral bioavailability of the major green tea antioxidant epigallocatechin gallate in humans. Antioxidants 2015, 4, 373–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Topdas, E.F.; Cakmakci, S.; Çakıroğlu, K. The antioxidant activity, vitamin c contents, physical, chemical and sensory properties of ice cream supplemented with cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.) paste. J. Fac. Vet. Med. Kafkas Univ. 2017, 23, 691–697. [Google Scholar]
  34. Bahramparvar, M.; Mazaheri Tehrani, M. Application and functions of stabilizers in ice cream. Food Rev. Int. 2011, 27, 389–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Williams, J.; McKune, A.J.; Georgousopoulou, E.N.; Kellett, J.; D’Cunha, N.M.; Sergi, D.; Mellor, D.; Naumovski, N. The effect of l-theanine incorporated in a functional food product (mango sorbet) on physiological responses in healthy males: A pilot randomised controlled trial. Foods 2020, 9, 371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. CODEX. Dairy-based desserts (e.g., pudding, fruit or flavoured yoghurt). In General Standards for Food Additives; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  37. Palka, A.; Skotnicka, M. The health-promoting and sensory properties of tropical fruit sorbets with inulin. Molecules 2022, 27, 4239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Gaudette, N.; Pickering, G. Modifying bitterness in functional food systems. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 53, 464–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Singh, S.; Shalini, R. Effect of hurdle technology in food preservation: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2016, 56, 641–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Zeng, L.; Ma, M.; Li, C.; Luo, L. Stability of tea polyphenols solution with different ph at different temperatures. Int. J. Food Prop. 2017, 20, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Fontoin, H.; Saucier, C.; Teissedre, P.-L.; Glories, Y. Effect of pH, ethanol and acidity on astringency and bitterness of grape seed tannin oligomers in model wine solution. Food Qual. Prefer. 2008, 19, 286–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Reddy, A.P.; Jenkins, B.M.; Vandergheynst, J. The critical moisture range for rapid microbial decomposition of rice straw during storage. Trans. ASABE 2009, 52, 673–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Húngaro, H.M.; Peña, W.E.L.; Silva, N.B.M.; Carvalho, R.V.; Alvarenga, V.O.; Sant’Ana, A.S. Food microbiology. In Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems; Van Alfen, N.K., Ed.; Academic Press: Oxford, UK, 2014; pp. 213–231. [Google Scholar]
  44. Rezaei, F.; Vandergheynst, J.S. Critical moisture content for microbial growth in dried food-processing residues. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2010, 90, 2000–2005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Archer, D.L. Freezing: An underutilized food safety technology? Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2004, 90, 127–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Chirife, J.; Herszage, L.; Joseph, A.; Kohn, E.S. In vitro study of bacterial growth inhibition in concentrated sugar solutions: Microbiological basis for the use of sugar in treating infected wounds. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1983, 23, 766–773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Darbyshire, B.; Muirhead, W.A.; Henry, R. Water-soluble polysaccharide in nine commercial sweet corn cultivars and its suitability for estimating kernel maturity. Anim. Prod. Sci. 1979, 19, 373–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Velásquez-Cock, J.; Serpa, A.; Vélez, L.; Gañán, P.; Gómez Hoyos, C.; Castro, C.; Duizer, L.; Goff, H.D.; Zuluaga, R. Influence of cellulose nanofibrils on the structural elements of ice cream. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 87, 204–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Clemens, R.A.; Jones, J.M.; Kern, M.; Lee, S.-Y.; Mayhew, E.J.; Slavin, J.L.; Zivanovic, S. Functionality of sugars in foods and health. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2016, 15, 433–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Oshima, H.; Kinoshita, M. Effects of sugars on the thermal stability of a protein. J. Chem. Phys. 2013, 138, 245101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Xie, G.; Timasheff, S.N. The thermodynamic mechanism of protein stabilization by trehalose. Biophys. Chem. 1997, 64, 25–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Chen, S.; Manabe, Y.; Minamoto, N.; Saiki, N.; Fukase, K. Development of a simple assay system for protein-stabilizing efficiency based on hemoglobin protection against denaturation and measurement of the cooperative effect of mixing protein stabilizers. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2016, 80, 1874–1878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Mensink, M.A.; Frijlink, H.W.; van der Voort Maarschalk, K.; Hinrichs, W.L.J. How sugars protect proteins in the solid state and during drying (review): Mechanisms of stabilization in relation to stress conditions. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2017, 114, 288–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Bushra, R.; Aslam, N.; Khan, A.Y. Food-drug interactions. Oman Med. J. 2011, 26, 77–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. McDonnell, A.M.; Dang, C.H. Basic review of the cytochrome p450 system. J. Adv. Pr. Oncol. 2013, 4, 263–268. [Google Scholar]
  56. Nelson, D.R. The cytochrome p450 homepage. Hum. Genom. 2009, 4, 59–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Macpherson, H.; Pipingas, A.; Pase, M.P. Multivitamin-multimineral supplementation and mortality: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 97, 437–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Angelo, G.; Drake, V.J.; Frei, B. Efficacy of multivitamin/mineral supplementation to reduce chronic disease risk: A critical review of the evidence from observational studies and randomized controlled trials. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2015, 55, 1968–1991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. Kim, J.; Choi, J.; Kwon, S.Y.; McEvoy, J.W.; Blaha, M.J.; Blumenthal, R.S.; Guallar, E.; Zhao, D.; Michos, E.D. Association of multivitamin and mineral supplementation and risk of cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 2018, 11, e004224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  60. Barrowman, J.A.; D’Mello, A.; Herxheimer, A. A single dose of neomycin impairs absorption of vitamin a (retinol) in man. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1973, 5, 199–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Cushman, M.; Booth, S.L.; Possidente, C.J.; Davidson, K.W.; Sadowski, J.A.; Bovill, E.G. The association of vitamin k status with warfarin sensitivity at the onset of treatment. Br. J. Haematol. 2001, 112, 572–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Heidelbaugh, J.J. Proton pump inhibitors and risk of vitamin and mineral deficiency: Evidence and clinical implications. Ther. Adv. Drug Saf. 2013, 4, 125–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Tonstad, S.; Knudtzon, J.; Sivertsen, M.; Refsum, H.; Ose, L. Efficacy and safety of cholestyramine therapy in peripubertal and prepubertal children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J. Pediatr. 1996, 129, 42–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Xu, Y.; Zhang, N.; Xu, S.; Xu, H.; Chen, S.; Xia, Z. Effects of phenytoin on serum levels of homocysteine, vitamin b12, folate in patients with epilepsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis (prisma-compliant article). Medicine 2019, 98, e14844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Sridharan, K.; Sivaramakrishnan, G. Interaction of citrus juices with cyclosporine: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet. 2016, 41, 665–673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Ho, Y.-F.; Huang, D.-K.; Hsueh, W.-C.; Lai, M.-Y.; Yu, H.-Y.; Tsai, T.-H. Effects of St. John’s wort extract on indinavir pharmacokinetics in rats: Differentiation of intestinal and hepatic impacts. Life Sci. 2009, 85, 296–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Palmer, B.F. Managing hyperkalemia caused by inhibitors of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004, 351, 585–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Solans, A.; Carbó, M.l.; Peña, J.; Nadal, T.; Izquierdo, I.; Merlos, M. Influence of food on the oral bioavailability of rupatadine tablets in healthy volunteers: A single-dose, randomized, open-label, two-way crossover study. Clin. Ther. 2007, 29, 900–908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  69. Sung, E.S.; Choi, C.K.; Kim, N.R.; Kim, S.A.; Shin, M.-H. Association of coffee and tea with ferritin: Data from the Korean national health and nutrition examination survey (IV and V). Chonnam Med. J. 2018, 54, 178–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Lane, D.J.R.; Richardson, D.R. The active role of vitamin c in mammalian iron metabolism: Much more than just enhanced iron absorption! Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2014, 75, 69–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Chung, M.; Balk, E.M.; Brendel, M.; Ip, S.; Lau, J.; Lee, J.; Lichtenstein, A.; Patel, K.; Raman, G.; Tatsioni, A.; et al. Vitamin d and calcium: A systematic review of health outcomes. Evid. Rep. Technol. Assess. 2009, 183, 1–420. [Google Scholar]
  72. Mitra, A.; Kesisoglou, F. Impaired drug absorption due to high stomach ph: A review of strategies for mitigation of such effect to enable pharmaceutical product development. Mol. Pharm. 2013, 10, 3970–3979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Rouge, N.; Buri, P.; Doelker, E. Drug absorption sites in the gastrointestinal tract and dosage forms for site-specific delivery. Int. J. Pharm. 1996, 136, 117–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Assadpour, E.; Mahdi Jafari, S. A systematic review on nanoencapsulation of food bioactive ingredients and nutraceuticals by various nanocarriers. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59, 3129–3151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Bush, L.; Stevenson, L.; Lane, K.E. The oxidative stability of omega-3 oil-in-water nanoemulsion systems suitable for functional food enrichment: A systematic review of the literature. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59, 1154–1168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Li, Y.O.; Diosady, L.L.; Wesley, A.S. Folic acid fortification through existing fortified foods: Iodized salt and vitamin A—Fortified sugar. Food Nutr. Bull. 2011, 32, 35–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Salehi, B.; Del Prado-Audelo, M.L.; Cortés, H.; Leyva-Gómez, G.; Stojanović-Radić, Z.; Singh, Y.D.; Patra, J.K.; Das, G.; Martins, N.; Martorell, M.; et al. Therapeutic applications of curcumin nanomedicine formulations in cardiovascular diseases. J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9, 746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Rafiee, Z.; Nejatian, M.; Daeihamed, M.; Jafari, S.M. Application of different nanocarriers for encapsulation of curcumin. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59, 3468–3497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Shrestha, H.; Bala, R.; Arora, S. Lipid-based drug delivery systems. J. Pharm. 2014, 2014, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Gökmen, V.; Mogol, B.A.; Lumaga, R.B.; Fogliano, V.; Kaplun, Z.; Shimoni, E. Development of functional bread containing nanoencapsulated omega-3 fatty acids. J. Food Eng. 2011, 105, 585–591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Brigger, I.; Dubernet, C.; Couvreur, P. Nanoparticles in cancer therapy and diagnosis. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2012, 64, 24–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Rein, M.J.; Renouf, M.; Cruz-Hernandez, C.; Actis-Goretta, L.; Thakkar, S.K.; da Silva Pinto, M. Bioavailability of bioactive food compounds: A challenging journey to bioefficacy. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2013, 75, 588–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Palka, A.; Wilczynska, A. Storage quality changes in craft and industrial blueberry, strawberry, raspberry and passion fruit-mango sorbets. Foods 2023, 12, 2733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Sneha, K.; Kumar, A. Nanoemulsions: Techniques for the preparation and the recent advances in their food applications. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2022, 76, 102914. [Google Scholar]
  85. Zennoune, A.; Latil, P.; Flin, F.; Perrin, J.; Weitkamp, T.; Scheel, M.; Geindreau, C.; Benkhelifa, H.; Ndoye, F.T. Investigating the influence of freezing rate and frozen storage conditions on a model sponge cake using synchrotron X-rays micro-computed tomography. Food Res. Int. 2022, 162, 112116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. VanWees, S.R.; Rankin, S.A.; Hartel, R.W. Shrinkage in frozen desserts. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2022, 21, 780–808. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Blahovec, J. Role of water content in food and product texture. Int. Agrophysics 2007, 21, 209–215. [Google Scholar]
  88. Kobayashi, R.; Kimizuka, N.; Watanabe, M.; Suzuki, T. The effect of supercooling on ice structure in tuna meat observed by using X-ray computed tomography. Int. J. Refrig. 2015, 60, 270–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Kamińska-Dwórznicka, A.; Kot, A.; Jakubczyk, E.; Buniowska-Olejnik, M.; Nowacka, M. Effect of ultrasound-assisted freezing on the crystal structure of mango sorbet. Crystals 2023, 13, 396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Bobowski, N. Shifting human salty taste preference: Potential opportunities and challenges in reducing dietary salt intake of americans. Chemosens. Percept. 2015, 8, 112–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Lim, L.S.; Tang, X.H.; Yang, W.Y.; Ong, S.H.; Naumovski, N.; Jani, R. Taste sensitivity and taste preference among Malay children aged 7 to 12 years in kuala lumpur-a pilot study. Pediatr. Rep. 2021, 13, 245–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Yang, W.Y.; Ong, S.H.; De Lee, Y.; Yen, P.L.; Lim, K.Y.; Naumovski, N.; Jani, R. Exploration of Malaysian school-children’s food preferences: What do we know? J. Trop. Pediatr. 2022, 68, fmac075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Greene, T.A.; Alarcon, S.; Thomas, A.; Berdougo, E.; Doranz, B.J.; Breslin, P.A.; Rucker, J.B. Probenecid inhibits the human bitter taste receptor tas2r16 and suppresses bitter perception of salicin. Public Libr. Sci. One 2011, 6, e20123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Gravina, S.A.; McGregor, R.A.; Nossoughi, R.; Kherlopian, J.; Hofmann, T. Biomimetic in vitro assay for the characterization of bitter tastants and identification of bitter taste blockers. In Challenges in Taste Chemistry and Biology; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA, 2003; Volume 867, pp. 91–101. [Google Scholar]
  95. Spielman, A.I. Gustducin and its role in taste. J. Dent. Res. 1998, 77, 539–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Christenson, J.; Whitby, S.J.; Mellor, D.; Thomas, J.; McKune, A.; Roach, P.D.; Naumovski, N. The effects of resveratrol supplementation in overweight and obese humans: A systematic review of randomized trials. Metab. Syndr. Relat. Disord. 2016, 14, 323–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Liem, D.G.; Miremadi, F.; Keast, R.S.J. Reducing sodium in foods: The effect on flavor. Nutrients 2011, 3, 694–711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Calvo, S.S.-C.; Egan, J.M. The endocrinology of taste receptors. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2015, 11, 213–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  99. Wong, J.M.W.; Jenkins, D.J.A. Carbohydrate digestibility and metabolic effects. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 2539S–2546S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Kant, R. Sweet proteins—Potential replacement for artificial low calorie sweeteners. Nutr. J. 2005, 4, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  101. Petkova, T.; Doykina, P.; Alexieva, I.; Mihaylova, D.; Popova, A. Characterization of fruit sorbet matrices with added value from Zizyphus jujuba and Stevia rebaudiana. Foods 2022, 11, 2748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  102. Goldfein, K.R.; Slavin, J.L. Why sugar is added to food: Food science 101. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2015, 14, 644–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Grunert, K.G.; Wills, J.M.; Fernández-Celemín, L. Nutrition knowledge, and use and understanding of nutrition information on food labels among consumers in the UK. Appetite 2010, 55, 177–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Document 32006R1924; Consolidated Text: Regulation (ec) no 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on Nutrition and Health Claims Made on Foods. EUR-Lex: Brussels, Belgium, 2014.
  105. Vella, M.N.; Stratton, L.M.; Sheeshka, J.; Duncan, A.M. Functional food awareness and perceptions in relation to information sources in older adults. Nutr. J. 2014, 13, 44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Bhaskaran, S.; Hardley, F. Buyer beliefs, attitudes and behaviour: Foods with therapeutic claims. J. Consum. Mark. 2002, 19, 591–606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Ha, S.K. Dietary salt intake and hypertension. Electrolyte Blood Press. 2014, 12, 7–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Wong, C.L.; Arcand, J.; Mendoza, J.; Henson, S.J.; Qi, Y.; Lou, W.; L’Abbe, M.R. Consumer attitudes and understanding of low-sodium claims on food: An analysis of healthy and hypertensive individuals. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 97, 1288–1298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Perrar, I.; Schmitting, S.; Della Corte, K.W.; Buyken, A.E.; Alexy, U. Age and time trends in sugar intake among children and adolescents: Results from the donald study. Eur. J. Nutr. 2019, 59, 1043–1054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  110. Nestle. Nestlé’s Groundbreaking Material Science Makes Less Sugar Taste Just as Good. Available online: https://www.nestle.com.au/media/newsandfeatures/nestle-research-discovery-sugar-reduction (accessed on 2 February 2023).
  111. Yasueda, A.; Urushima, H.; Ito, T. Efficacy and interaction of antioxidant supplements as adjuvant therapy in cancer treatment:A systematic review. Integr. Cancer Ther. 2016, 15, 17–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  112. Seifirad, S.; Ghaffari, A.; Amoli, M.M. The antioxidants dilemma: Are they potentially immunosuppressants and carcinogens? Front. Physiol. 2014, 5, 245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  113. Conn, V.S.; Ruppar, T.M. Medication adherence outcomes of 771 intervention trials: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev. Med. 2017, 99, 269–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Figure 1. Consumed bioactive ingredients are subject to pH changes that occur through the human alimentary tract that can inhibit the activity of dispersion, digestion and absorption into the body. Images developed using Biorender.com (2021).
Figure 1. Consumed bioactive ingredients are subject to pH changes that occur through the human alimentary tract that can inhibit the activity of dispersion, digestion and absorption into the body. Images developed using Biorender.com (2021).
Applsci 13 11945 g001
Table 3. Interactions between vitamins and commonly prescribed medications.
Table 3. Interactions between vitamins and commonly prescribed medications.
Vitamin/MineralDrugType of StudyFindingReference
Vitamin CProtein pump InhibitorsLiterature reviewVitamin C bioavailability is decreased when taken alongside protein pump inhibitors such as omeprazole. [62]
Vitamin ANeomycinClinical trialThe single dose (2 g) neomycin sulphate in combination with 30,000 i.u. Vitamin A decreased plasma retinol levels 4 h post-food consumption.[60]
Vitamin KWarfarinClinical trialPatients with lower vitamin K status showed greater sensitivity to warfarin than those with high vitamin K status.[61]
Vitamin DCholestyramineClinical trialAdolescents with familial hypercholesterolemia consuming cholestyramine 8 g/day for one year showed significant decreases in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations.[63]
Vitamin B9 (folate)PhenytoinSystematic reviewThe administration of the anticonvulsant drug phenytoin showed significant decreases in serum folate levels in epileptic patients.[64]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Williams, J.; McKune, A.J.; Naumovski, N. Sorbets as Functional Food Products, Unexplored Food Matrices, Their Challenges, and Advancements. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 11945. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111945

AMA Style

Williams J, McKune AJ, Naumovski N. Sorbets as Functional Food Products, Unexplored Food Matrices, Their Challenges, and Advancements. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(21):11945. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111945

Chicago/Turabian Style

Williams, Jackson, Andrew J. McKune, and Nenad Naumovski. 2023. "Sorbets as Functional Food Products, Unexplored Food Matrices, Their Challenges, and Advancements" Applied Sciences 13, no. 21: 11945. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111945

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop