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Article

Audio Feedback with the Use of a Smartphone in Sailing Training among Windsurfers

by
Jacek Tarnas
1,*,
Magdalena Cyma-Wejchenig
2,
Nina Schaffert
3,4 and
Rafał Stemplewski
2
1
Department of Physical Education and Lifelong Sports, Poznan University of Physical Education, Królowej Jadwigi 27/39, 61-871 Poznań, Poland
2
Department of Digital Technologies in Physical Activity, Poznan University of Physical Education, Królowej Jadwigi 27/39, 61-871 Poznań, Poland
3
Department of Movement and Training Science, Institute for Human Movement Science, University of Hamburg, Turmweg 2, 20148 Hamburg, Germany
4
BeSB GmbH Berlin Sound Engineering, Undinestr. 43, 12203 Berlin, Germany
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(5), 3357; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053357
Submission received: 26 January 2023 / Revised: 26 February 2023 / Accepted: 3 March 2023 / Published: 6 March 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearables and Smartphone Applications in Sports)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The open-water training conditions in sailing sports limit the coach’s ability to provide instructions. Auditory feedback provided using a smartphone application in real-time seems to be a promising tool in the training process. The aim of the study was to assess the usefulness of a smartphone application created to support tactical decisions via an auditory display. Thirteen successful windsurfers competing in RS:X class took part in the study. The results, collected with the use of a questionnaire, related to the technical and aesthetic aspects of the functions as well as decision-making assistance of the application during upwind sailing races. Most of the competitors positively evaluated application function (54–85%). Real-time information about the deviation from the set course and information about potential tack change due to a changed wind direction were statistically significantly more helpful for less experienced windsurfers (rho = −0.68 and rho = −0.78, respectively) and those with lower sports level (rho = −0.63 and rho = −0.65, respectively). It can be concluded that the use of sound feedback in the conditions of training on-water in sailing has potential, primarily for younger and less experienced competitors. Quantitative evaluations of the sailing performance should be considered in further research on the functionality of the application.

1. Introduction

The sailing sports are associated with unstable and uncertain environmental conditions, such as fluctuating wind and variable sea. The optimal course to the finish line is variable since the wind and waves usually impact the sailing direction and speed along the course. These unforeseeable environmental factors increase the level of perceptual-motor complexity in sailing [1]. Furthermore, the training process makes specific demands in terms of the physical fitness of the sailor, technical and tactical skills, and optimal boat settings [2,3,4]. Unique requirements are related to the sport of windsurfing; windsurfers are expected to stand on the board and execute dynamic maneuvers with a variety of techniques for the duration of the race. Generally, there are three major aspects of training in windsurfing: improving racecourse management and tactics, perfecting equipment handling and sailing technique, and developing physical fitness [5]. Particularly, the high physical effort of the windsurfer, e.g., during pulling the sail rhythmically (pumping) thus providing the board with additional propulsion, makes the training highly demanding. Moreover, participants must make the most appropriate decisions in response to the behavior of their opponents.
In these constantly changing and tumultuous training conditions in sailing sports, any advice an instructor or a coach can provide is limited. During a typical training session, as well as training races, the coach’s support is usually provided only before or after the task; the support during sailing is basically impossible due to the distance from the competitors on the body of water. The introduction of a high-performance virtual trainer can improve the decision-making in safe and desired environments [6,7]. Virtual simulators are a relatively new and promising way for athletes to practice their skills in specific situations, improving the speed of learning certain skills. However, sailing sports are cognitively demanding activities that require constant perception of different information from the environment and its processing. Training in virtual situations often does not translate to the training conditions in the real world. In the context of scientific verification of training effects, the significant differences between laboratory studies and representative experimental settings were indicated [8], and research should take place, wherever feasible, in situations that replicate the natural environment as closely as possible [9]. Further work on the development of simulators was undertaken assuming that training competitive sailing in a virtual setting should apply the motion of the boat as well as haptic feedback of the sail lines [10]. This effect was sought using an electronic mainsheet force feedback system and a novel motion platform with high roll motion angles, combined with a high-quality graphical sailing simulation. However, designing such simulators appears difficult and complex, since multi-disciplinary design teams are needed, as well as extensive user testing to fine-tune the settings.
A promising method that can support the decision-making skills in real on-water sailing and windsurfing training is to apply augmented audio feedback. In general, the visual sense dominates the perception of important aspects needed during open water races, such as the personal position and actions of other competitors, sea condition, and wind direction. For example, better sailing performance is related to visual search behavior, like gazing to the tangent point of the windward mark [11]. Therefore, the advantages of auditory feedback seem to be promising in the dynamic conditions of sailing sports, since they can allow the competitor to focus on other tasks. The key element here is to acquire real-time information that is relevant to the training race (e.g., the optimal course in relation to the position of the distant windward mark), which can extend the range of stimuli from the environment. Useful information can be sourced from GNSS devices (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) which are currently widely available. The implementation of visual feedback that reflects a sailor’s position relative to the racecourse in real-world on-water training conditions is problematic due to the limited focus on GNSS devices. However, using the sense of hearing seems to be a promising alternative. The present concept was developed within the framework of a research project in which the SoniSailing application for mobile phones was created to support tactical decisions via an auditory display, using the example of windsurfing. In the preliminary stage of the project, the functionality of the application interface and the reliability of navigational measurements were studied [12]. Furthermore, different sound transmission devices (in-ear headphones, a wireless speaker, bone conduction wireless headphones) as well as various modes of sound information (pure tone, speech, repeated sound) were tested [13]. Ultimately, bone conduction wireless headphones and a voice generator were considered optimal for the main purpose of the project.
Using the SoniSailing application, the windsurfer’s actual course can be described promptly in relation to the race route in real on-water conditions during the training process. Recent research suggests that auditory cues based on satellite navigation are a sensory augmentation that helps to create a stronger connection with the environment [14]. Augmented auditory display supporting basic tactical decisions seems to be promising in sailing sports, primarily due to the demanding environment and the necessity of constant course control in regard to the route of the regatta.
Hence, the aim of the study was to assess of usefulness of the augmented audio feedback provided in real-time with the use of a smartphone application, based on the opinions of windsurfers at different sports levels.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

Thirteen participants took part in the study (6 males and 7 females). They were successful windsurfers competing in RS:X windsurfing class with sports levels from regional and national juniors to the national seniors champions, ranking 1–3, respectively. The level of experience was 6.0 years and 5.7 years on average for rank 1 and 2, respectively (juniors), and 12.7 years for rank 3 (seniors). The research was conducted on the sea during windsurfing training camps. All competitors gave their informed consent and reported no injuries or hearing impairments. The study was approved by the Bioethical Committee at Poznan University of Medical Science (decision no. 198/16) and was in line with the Helsinki Declaration [15].

2.2. Instrumentation and Software

A smartphone equipped with a built-in GNSS receiver was used during the study; this smartphone uses signals from three navigation systems: GPS, Glonass, and Beidou. The sampling rate was 1 Hz. In the study, a Samsung Galaxy J5 (model SM-J500F; mobile operating system: Android version 6.0.1; RAM 1.5 GB; market launch 2015) was used.
The SoniSailing application used in the current research is a custom-made program for mobile phone devices. Thanks to constant geometrical analysis of coordinates from a GNNS module, the SoniSailing application monitors current motion vector of the surfboard according to the race route. The reliability of angular change-of-direction measurement, estimated by the application, was tested [12]. The measurement is the basis for correct operation of major functions.
Sound messages (vocal cues) were provided using bone conduction wireless headphones (AfterShokz, Bluez 2S AS500 model), connected with the smartphone with the use of Bluetooth 4.1 standard.

2.3. The Application Operation According to Basics of Sailing Theory

The operation of the application SoniSailing covers tactical situations during sailing upwind, including tacking. The primary function of the application is based on the so called “no-go zone”, which is the angle between the close-hauled lines on portside tack and on starboard tack. The angle depends on several factors (e.g., wind speed, the type of the hull, etc.) and ranges predominantly from 60° to 120°. The greater the deviation from the no-go zone, the faster the sailing speed, but at the cost of a longer distance. Maintaining the optimal course during tacking as an adequate ratio of speed to distance covered is one of the most important skills during tacking. Primarily, the competitor must distinguish any changes in wind direction, as this shifts the whole no-go zone (Figure 1). In option A, the line of wind direction is aligned with the line between the start and windward buoy, whereas option B presents a shift of 20° in wind direction. If the competitor does not notice the change, he or she can unconsciously bear away to less beneficial position (option B). The second competitor, when continuing port tack course with changed wind direction (W2), will face a longer distance to the windward buoy in the case of consecutive unfavorable change.
Slow changes are often difficult to notice, especially on large bodies of water. The SoniSailing application can detect and report the unfavorable change of the current motion vector of the competitor in relation to the line between the start and windward buoy. The report can be audibly provided in real time with the use of a speech generator (the spoken deviation angle value in degrees). The system was set to communicate the deviation from the optimal course with an accuracy of 5°. Furthermore, a 5 s break in audio transmission was set to eliminate the effects of dynamic changes of the GNSS signal to prevent users from getting bored or irritated with frequent messages. In case of the windsurfer taking the optimal course, no speech messages were provided by the application, even though the system continued to collect data.
In addition, the application may inform the competitor about the moment when they reach the so called layline (“Layline” sound message). This information can be helpful in deciding to change tack because, theoretically, this last change allows the competitor to reach the windward buoy most effectively (Figure 2). Assuming a constant speed of both boards, a delayed tack change by the second competitor and, as a result, significantly overstepping layline, may result in unfavorable position and extended distance to the windward buoy.

2.4. Test Design and Procedure

The participants were introduced to the aim of the study with regard to functions of the SoniSailing application. The competitors had not used any sailing applications for mobile devices before the research. The study lasted 3 days, with one training session per day, conducted at the same time of the day. Before starting each training session, the operation of the system was described to the windsurfers to ensure that they were aware of how to react to the information provided by the application. During each training session, three upwind sailing races were performed with auditory feedback (sound messages: deviation angle value in degrees, and “Layline”). The volume of the messages was regulated by the competitors according to their preferences. The upwind leg was chosen for research testing since the first leg of the windsurfing race route was indicated as important in achieving a podium finish [16].
The value of the “no-go zone” (110°) was calculated based on the mean angular values of the courses on the opposite tacks and performed by the national senior team. The wind speed (15 to 17 kts) was classified as a medium to heavy [16]. The race route was 300 m long and ran between the starting line at the judge’s boat and the windward buoy.
All participants in the study used uniform windsurfing boards (RS:X class) and sails, the size of which was 8.5 m2. The smartphone was kept in a waterproof case and attached to the mast (20 cm above the boom) within arm’s reach (Figure 3). Before the start, the competitors set the application into the standby mode. The application started and finished automatically thanks to the activation and deactivation fields (circles). The centers of the fields (with a 15 m radius) were marked by the coordinates of the judge’s boat and the windward buoy before each training session, respectively.

2.5. Outcomes

The primary outcome was the usefulness of the augmented audio feedback provided in real-time with the use of a smartphone application, based on the opinions of windsurfers. Opinions were collected with the use of custom-designed questionnaire. Immediately after the last training session, the participants were asked eight questions (Q1–Q8) in order to gauge their thoughts on the implementation of the SoniSailing application and how it influenced their training:
Q1.
Was the speech generator audible enough?
Q2.
Did the application not disturb you while sailing?
Q3.
Was it easy to focus on the information provided by the application?
Q4.
Did the application reliably reflect the deviation of the board course from the set angle?
Q5.
Did the performance of the application strengthen your orientation towards the tack section?
Q6.
Was a real-time information about the deviation from the set course helpful?
Q7.
Was the app helpful in deciding to change tack due to changed wind direction?
Q8.
Was the app helpful in deciding to change tack (“Layline” sound message) in order to make your last turn and sail to the top mark?
Questions 1–3 were related to the technical aspects of the functions of the application. The others were connected to the usefulness for windsurfers during upwind sailing races.
The answers were set in the five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

2.6. Statistic Analysis

The results were presented as a percentage of positive (strongly agree and agree), neutral, and negative (disagree and strongly disagree) answers; these were separated for the technical aspects of the functions of the application and its usefulness for windsurfers during upwind sailing races.
To evaluate the usefulness of the SoniSailing application for competitors of different sports levels, a Spearman rank correlation analysis between the total number of points from questionnaire and competition experience (in years) and sports level (rank category) was performed. The analysis of differences between junior and senior groups was also conducted with the use of Mann–Whitney’s test. The statistical significance level was set at p < 0.05.
Statistical analyses were computed using Statistica v. 13.0 software (TIBCO Software 337 Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA).

3. Results

The mean age of the study group was 21.4 ± 4.3 years with 9.5 ± 4.0 years of experience on average. The BMI for the whole group was equal to 20.9 ± 1.46 kg/m2. The detailed information for groups of different sports levels is shown in Table 1.
Percentages of positive, neutral, and negative answers were presented in Figure 4; answers were accumulated to three categories: positive (strongly agree and agree), neutral, and negative (disagree and strongly disagree). In case of the technical and aesthetic aspects of functions of the application (4A), it was observed that most of the competitors evaluated application function positively (54–85%). The usefulness for windsurfers during upwind sailing races (4B) was assessed positively in Q4, relating to reliability of reflecting the deviation of the board course from the set angle (77%). Scores for the other aspects (Q5–Q8) were lower (46–69% negative answers).
Statistically significant negative correlation coefficients were noted between competition experience, as well as sports level and scores, for Q6 and Q7 (Table 2). It indicates that real-time information about the deviation from the set course and information about potential tack change due to changed wind direction were more helpful for less experienced windsurfers and those with lower sports level.
The differences in mean response values between the senior and junior groups were evaluated (Table 3). For Q6 and Q7, average values were significantly higher in the junior group than in the senior group (p < 0.05).

4. Discussion

The aim of this study was to assess of the usefulness of the augmented audio feedback provided in real-time with the use of a smartphone application. The current research generally noted positive opinions connected to the quality and effectiveness of the reception of virtual voice.
In the studies of other authors, different forms and strategy of presented auditory cues were used for navigation purposes. For instance, Holland at al. [17] proposed to use tones, emanated from the left or right channel of headphones to indicate walking direction among pedestrians. They proposed to use silence to indicate travelling in the right direction; this would be minimally distracting since the user is doing the right thing. This strategy was used in the current study; there were no speech messages in case of optimal course of the windsurfer. Silence caused by the loss of GNSS signal can be problematic here. However, the analysis of the raw data did not demonstrate a lack of signal, which may be due to the advantage of conducting the research in open-water conditions. In another study, as an additional option besides listening to speech, participants followed routes by keeping track of the volume and perceived direction of the music source [18]. Recently, navigation was also supported by audio beacons (continuously playing spatial audio) and verbal directions [14]. While speech seems an obvious solution to navigation, Tran et al. [19] reported that speech sounds (“This way”, “Steer here”) were less preferred for navigation than non-speech beacons (e.g., bell sound, sonar blip). In the current project, it was noticed that in demanding on-water sailing conditions, a virtual voice could be more comprehensible than other auditory cues [13]. Based on the results, it can be indicated that speech messages were assessed by most participants as audible enough and easy to focus on (Figure 4A). Moreover, a virtual voice can potentially provide more information, not only limited to these commonly known cues, as used in traditional turn-by-turn navigation. This passive form of navigation, customarily used in car navigation systems, does not support spatial awareness and can cause decline in spatial memory [20]. The spoken deviation angle value in degrees audibly provided to sailors in real time does not prejudge the need for course corrections or tack change. The application presents additional information to the competitor, based on which he or she can make his or her own decision, considering, for example, the positions of other competitors or squalls. However, although most respondents (77%) agreed with the reliability of the reflection of the windsurfing board’s course deviation, in the opinion of a large group of athletes (69%), the application did not enhance orientation towards the tack section (Q5). The results can be explained by the high sports level of most of the study group, in which ten of the thirteen competitors belong to the national junior and senior team (3 and 7, respectively). Most of the members of these teams were successful in international competitions, therefore we can assume that their orientation on the water was already at a high level. This may be confirmed by the main findings, which indicate that the information about the deviation from the set course and information about the possible change of the tack due to the change in the wind direction were more helpful for less experienced windsurfers (rho = −0.68 and rho = −0.78, respectively) and those with lower sports level (rho = −0.63 and rho = −0.65, respectively). Additionally, these findings were confirmed in the analysis of differences between junior and senior groups, where statistically significant higher values were observed in juniors. Cues about optimal course and change of the tack are crucial. They can prevent bearing away to a less beneficial position, and thus shorten the distance covered. These short distances strategically affected the outcome of the sailing race [21]. During the upwind and downwind legs of the race route, high-performance windsurfing competitors demonstrated a significantly less distance travelled in heavy wind conditions [22].
Furthermore, the use of auditory cues concerning decisions about a change of tack may require an in-depth familiarization process. Generally, augmented auditory feedback is not as intuitive as visual feedback and auditory displays depend considerably on the correct interpretation of the applied sounds [23]. In the current study, about half of the respondents negatively assessed the usefulness of auditory cues in decision-making questions (Q7, Q8). The results may be partly explained by the findings of other studies, in which the use of simple signals (e.g., buzzer, blip) was applied in the motor learning process. Baudry et al. [24] suggested that auditory feedback in the beginning of experiment interfered with manual coordination and it took some time to adjust to the concurrent feedback in the training of gymnasts. Similarly, “the audio feedback was distracting at first” during the skiers’ training. However, participants ultimately declared that the real-time audio feedback helped them better understand their carving skills [25]. In previous research using a ski simulator task, it was noted that analog signals interfered with participants’ movements until about the third day of training [26]. In the current study, windsurfers trained for three days with one training session per day and three races per session, which could only partially result in the process of familiarization with auditory cues. However, research conducted in the conditions of actual sports competition in sailing, considering comparable conditions, is a demanding challenge.
The present research has several limitations that must be noted. First, the sample size was relatively small. However, the number of participants was determined by the number of active members of national windsurfing teams. Second, while the sports level of windsurfers was clearly differentiated, the distribution was uneven. Most of the group consisted of athletes with a master sports level, which could distort the results regarding the usefulness of audio feedback. Additionally, the impact of the narrow range of wind speed should be considered, since the technical and tactical variables showed differences according to wind conditions [22]. Furthermore, the duration of the tests needs to be extended, and consequently so does the process of familiarization with auditory feedback. Finally, the results consisted only of subjective evaluations based on the athlete’s opinions.
The results of this study present the potential of the use of augmented audio feedback, provided in real-time during the training process in sailing sports. A smartphone with appropriate capability seems to be the proper tool in demanding on water sailing race conditions, primarily for younger and less experienced competitors. In the future, an auditory display of the velocity made good (VMG), a parameter that can be calculated using GNSS data, appears to have significant potential. VMG determines the performance of the board based on the maximum speed it can reach as a function of the course, and on upwind and downwind courses it is considered the most important variable to evaluate the performance of the sailor [27].
Further research, enriched in quantitative evaluations, should be considered, accounting for the sports level of the athletes. This may allow objective evidence of the usefulness of the augmented audio feedback in the context of the learning process to be obtained.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.T.; methodology, J.T. and R.S.; software, J.T.; formal analysis, R.S; investigation, J.T., M.C.-W. and N.S.; data curation, J.T.; writing—original draft preparation, J.T., M.C.-W. and N.S.; writing—review and editing, R.S., M.C.-W. and N.S.; visualization, R.S., M.C.-W.; supervision, R.S; project administration, J.T.; funding acquisition, J.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Polish government, grant number 0059/RS4/2016/54.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Bioethical Committee at Poznan University of Medical Science (decision no. 198/16).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to the protection of personal data.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge Paweł Kowalski, Maciej Dziemiańczuk and Leszek Kostański for their support in the research and valuable input throughout this project.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 13 03357 g001 550
Figure 1. A shift in the optimal courses as a result of change in wind direction. (A) the line of wind direction is aligned with the line between the start and windward buoy; (B) the line of wind direction is a shift of 20° from the line between the start and windward buoy. W1, W2—direction of the example wind.
Figure 1. A shift in the optimal courses as a result of change in wind direction. (A) the line of wind direction is aligned with the line between the start and windward buoy; (B) the line of wind direction is a shift of 20° from the line between the start and windward buoy. W1, W2—direction of the example wind.
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Figure 2. Examples of variants of windsurfing board courses, depending on the moment of the last tack. 1—windsurfer took the optimal course thanks to a sound message (“Layline”); 2—windsurfer overstepped layline.
Figure 2. Examples of variants of windsurfing board courses, depending on the moment of the last tack. 1—windsurfer took the optimal course thanks to a sound message (“Layline”); 2—windsurfer overstepped layline.
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Applsci 13 03357 g003 550
Figure 3. Placing the smartphone on the mast.
Figure 3. Placing the smartphone on the mast.
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Applsci 13 03357 g004 550
Figure 4. Percentage distribution of positive, neutral, and negative answers connected to technical (A) and usefulness (B) aspects of app functions.
Figure 4. Percentage distribution of positive, neutral, and negative answers connected to technical (A) and usefulness (B) aspects of app functions.
Applsci 13 03357 g004
Table
Table 1. Mean values and standard deviations of age, height, body mass, BMI, and sports experience in different sports level participants according to rank category.
Table 1. Mean values and standard deviations of age, height, body mass, BMI, and sports experience in different sports level participants according to rank category.
Sports LevelNGenderAge
[Years]		Height
[cm]		Body Mass
[kg]		BMIExperience
[Years]
FM
Rank 1
Regional Junior Team 		31217.9 ± 0.9181.3 ± 14.667.3 ± 16.320.2 ± 1.876.0 ± 1.0
Rank 2
National Junior Team		31217.3 ± 0.6170.7 ± 4.765.0 ± 2.622.4 ± 1.475.7 ± 0.6
Rank 3
National Senior Team		75224.6 ± 3.3173.4 ± 8.362.1 ± 6.720.6 ± 1.0112.7 ± 2.4
Total137621.4 ± 4.3174.6 ± 9.564.0 ± 8.620.9 ± 1.469.5 ± 4.0
Table
Table 2. Spearman’s rank correlations coefficients between answers from the questionnaire (Q1–Q8) and competition experience as well as sports level.
Table 2. Spearman’s rank correlations coefficients between answers from the questionnaire (Q1–Q8) and competition experience as well as sports level.
Competition ExperienceSports Level
QuestionSpearman’s RhopSpearman’s Rhop
1−0.020.9420.050.883
20.010.9730.130.673
3−0.470.104−0.510.077
40.070.825−0.160.603
5−0.300.323−0.230.440
6−0.680.010−0.630.020
7−0.780.001−0.650.015
8−0.300.316−0.470.106
Table
Table 3. Average values and standard deviations for questions 1 to 8, in junior and senior group and the analysis of differences (Mann–Whitney’s test) between groups.
Table 3. Average values and standard deviations for questions 1 to 8, in junior and senior group and the analysis of differences (Mann–Whitney’s test) between groups.
JuniorsSeniorsZp
Questionx ± SDx ± SD
14.3 ± 1.214.1 ± 1.46−0.250.806
22.8 ± 0.982.9 ± 1.460.001.000
34.3 ± 1.213.1 ± 1.57−1.360.173
43.7 ± 1.033.7 ± 0.760.001.000
52.8 ± 1.472.3 ± 1.25−0.700.483
63.7 ± 1.032.4 ± 0.79−1.990.047
73.5 ± 0.842.3 ± 1.25−2.240.025
83.2 ± 1.472.3 ± 0.95−1.110.266
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MDPI and ACS Style

Tarnas, J.; Cyma-Wejchenig, M.; Schaffert, N.; Stemplewski, R. Audio Feedback with the Use of a Smartphone in Sailing Training among Windsurfers. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3357. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053357

AMA Style

Tarnas J, Cyma-Wejchenig M, Schaffert N, Stemplewski R. Audio Feedback with the Use of a Smartphone in Sailing Training among Windsurfers. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(5):3357. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053357

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tarnas, Jacek, Magdalena Cyma-Wejchenig, Nina Schaffert, and Rafał Stemplewski. 2023. "Audio Feedback with the Use of a Smartphone in Sailing Training among Windsurfers" Applied Sciences 13, no. 5: 3357. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053357

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