Next Article in Journal
UAV Hyperspectral Characterization of Vegetation Using Entropy-Based Active Sampling for Partial Least Square Regression Models
Previous Article in Journal
Directed Search for Non-Dominated Emergency Medical System Designs
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 13
Issue 8
10.3390/app13084811
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Combined Effect of Calcium Chloride and Cement on Expansive Soil Materials

by
Abdullah Almajed
,
Muawia Dafalla
* and
Abdullah A. Shaker
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(8), 4811; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084811
Submission received: 8 March 2023 / Revised: 9 April 2023 / Accepted: 10 April 2023 / Published: 11 April 2023
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In this study, the chemical stabilization of moderately to highly plastic expansive soil using calcium chloride with added cement is introduced as an effective alternative to the conventional approaches using a single additive such as lime, cement, or a by-product of industrial processes. Using only calcium chloride may lead to its leaching or dissolution over time, leaving a collapsing skeleton with weak bonds. The chemical effect produced by additives is dependent on the constituents of the stabilized soil and the curing period considered. Herein, calcium chloride concentrations of 2%, 4%, and 8% with the addition of 2% cement by dry weight of the soil were considered. The main objective of this study is to investigate the addition of a low amount of cement as a binder to improve the strength and durability of a chemically treated expansive soil. The engineering properties were investigated at 3 curing times: 3 days, 7 days, and 28 days. A laboratory investigation was carried out to investigate the effect of the addition of calcium chloride with cement on the swell potential, swell pressure, compression index, suction, and unconfined compressive strength. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) testing was conducted. The X-ray diffraction patterns were recorded to observe the mineralogy of the material. The results confirmed that calcium chloride with cement is very effective for stabilizing the expansive soil. A reduction in the swell potential by 8% and 25% and a reduction in swelling pressure by 28% and 37.4% were observed for 4% and 8% calcium chloride with cement addition. The compression index decreased with the increase in the calcium chloride content.

1. Introduction

Expansive soils are clays that contain a large amount of expanding minerals and are prone to swelling and contracting in response to changes in moisture content. This can cause significant problems and damage such as the cracking of walls and settling of foundations. Calcium chloride is a salt known for attracting moisture when mixed with wet soil. Removing moisture from expansive clay material can increase strength and improve stability.
The addition of cement to the soil, either in the form of Portland cement or another type of hydraulic cement, can further improve the stability of the soil. The cement reacts with the soil particles to form a stable matrix that helps to bind the soil particles together and increases the strength of the soil.
The chemical stabilization of expansive soil is related to an added material that can react with the soil in the presence of water. This reaction can improve the swelling and shrinking characteristics as well as the soil’s physical and mechanical properties. Researchers and practicing engineers are well aware that lime and cement are predominantly used for chemical stabilization. However, the amount of additives and the level of stabilization are dependent on the mineralogy of the expansive soil, in addition to other various placement conditions. The cost and the processes of mixing constitute a major issue in chemical stabilization methods. The advantages and disadvantages of using a particular stabilizer must be determined and evaluated by an experienced geotechnical engineer. Currently, lime is typically used as a common stabilizer as it costs less than other strong binders such as cement. Vast areas in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are affected by expansive soils. Expansive soils are reported in the east, north, northwest, and central areas of the country. The threats and damage caused by this type of soil to structures and foundations include uplift, twist, cracking, overturning, and collapse. The use of chemical stabilization can improve subgrade soils that support major roads and highways in the northern and north-western parts of the country. Extensive research was conducted on the use of chemical stabilizers for expansive soils. Studies reporting the use of lime have been published since the middle of the 20th Century. McDowell [1] surveyed the soil stabilization process using lime, lime-fly-ash, and other lime-reactive minerals. Lime enhances the geotechnical properties of the stabilized soil by reducing its moisture content and plasticity index. The formation of flocculated soil particles takes place due to hydration and cation exchange capacity. Sherwood [2] stated that adding quick lime to wet soil reduces its moisture content by nearly one-third. Liu et al. [3] found that adding lime improves the strength and compaction characteristics rapidly in the early stages of curing and continues to improve at a slow rate in longer curing periods. Wang et al. [4] investigated the addition of 3% and 9% lime to marine sediments and found that the plasticity index is reduced and unconfined compressive strength is increased. Barman and Dash (2022) [5] conducted a review on expansive soil stabilization using chemical additives. They also observed that the stabilization process occurs as a result of hydration and cation exchange. Pozzolanic reactions can cause soils to flocculate and form stiff lumps and particles. The minimum lime content required to maintain high pH value (pH = 12.40) in the soil–lime mixture is recommended as the percentage represented the optimum lime content (Eades and Grim, 1966) [6]. The amount of lime required to achieve significant improvement varies from 5% to 10% according to the US Army Corps of Engineers, 1994 [7]. Other research studies [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16] reported that the addition of CaCl2 can increase the initial and long-term strength of constructed roadbed materials and improve their durability due to cation exchange and flocculation of soil particles.
Chemical treatments using a single product may be associated with some deficiencies, such as a slow reaction process or leachability in a wet environment. Lime or calcium chloride-treated soils are frequently prone to the leaching of the additive, leading to less concentration of the stabilizer and leaving some voids that affect the general mixture performance [17]. The decrease in the rate of pozzolanic reactions and increase in hydraulic conductivity can be influenced by the dose of the additive and the mineralogy of the soil. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is expected to hold particles together when some parts of calcium chloride are washed out. The microstructure and interaction between the clay particles and cement can be observed by high magnification scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images. The formation of voids within expansive soils, if not excessive, may help in reducing the swell pressure and swell potential.
Zumrawi et al. [18,19] investigated the effect of the addition of chloride salts on the index properties of expansive soils as well as the extent of reduction in swell pressure and swell potential for other selected chloride salts (e.g., AlCl3, FeCl3, and NH4Cl). Calcium chloride salt can absorb water greater than its weight, and in a highly humid environment, calcium chloride can absorb water greater than 16 times its weight [20]. This property can reduce the exposure of expansive clay to water, thereby decreasing the expansion and swelling. As calcium chloride is a soluble salt, it creates voids and spaces for swelling to occur internally. Murty and Padavala [21] stated that the plasticity index of the clay bed decreased by 7–15% and 40–60% with lime and calcium chloride treatments, respectively.
The use of combined additives including calcium chloride is rare in the literature. The works of Suresh and Murugaiyan [22] suggested using calcium chloride and alccofine.
This study is aimed at using a small amount of cement (2%) to improve the calcium chloride stabilization of expansive soil. The combined effect of the two stabilizers is presented as an alternative to a single additive. Higher cement content needed for good stabilization may result in a stiff and non-workable soil mixture.
The use of a low amount of the strong binder (2%) is suggested for two reasons. (1) The higher amount of cement is expected to produce very stiff lumps that are not easily compacted. Moreover, the delay of compaction may be a significant factor that affects field operations. (2) The cost of using excessive cement as an additional binder will impact the budget of the stabilization process.
Legas, 2022 [23], considered using cement at 2% as a cementing agent to the PUMICE foam additive to expansive soils. The plasticity index was reduced by nearly 30% when 2% cement and 12% PUMICE foam material is added.
Al-Jabban, 2019 [24], confirmed that the addition of cement has immediate and long-term effects on the consistency limits and improves the strength and stiffness of the untreated soil.
The call for using a low amount of a strong binder, namely, cement along with the calcium chloride is expected to perform well and reduce the level of leaching by preventing the disintegration of weakly cemented lumps formed as a result of the pozzolanic reaction.
Calcium chloride with little cement is expected to give better results than other stabilization methods using lime or calcium chloride alone. This research is conducted using highly plastic expansive soil obtained from Al-Qatif region in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

2.1.1. General

Many parts of semi-arid zones in the Arabian Peninsula may include clay with high plasticity that is rich in smectite minerals. These clays can be very harmful to light structures when water is introduced or removed, as in wetting and drying. The Al-Qatif clay used herein was obtained from the eastern parts of Saudi Arabia, representing the highest swelling soils in the region. The other materials used included cement and pure calcium chloride salt.

2.1.2. Al-Qatif Clay

Herein, unprocessed clay was used, and natural swelling clay was obtained from Al-Qatif city (coordinates; 26.5764917, 49.9982360), which is known to be composed of highly plastic green to dark brown clay. The city is located along the shoreline of the Arabian Gulf. It is about 400 km to the east of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The properties and swelling characteristics of Al-Qatif were extensively investigated [25,26,27,28,29,30,31]. All studies confirmed that the Al-Qatif clay is highly expansive due to its mineralogy and the amount of smectite mineral content. Table 1 and Table 2 present the physical and chemical compositions of Al-Qatif clay, respectively. The liquid limit was measured in the range of 130 to 150, while the plasticity index varied from 70 to 80. This is classified as CH (highly plastic clays in accordance with the unified classification system, USCS).

2.1.3. Calcium Chloride

Pure calcium chloride was used in this study, which is an inorganic powder that is typically placed in a sealed, tight jar due to its anhydrous nature. White calcium chloride salt was used, with a 98% purity as stated by the manufacturer. The boiling point of calcium chloride is known to be high, i.e., >1900 °C. Calcium chloride exhibits several applications and it is frequently used for de-icing or dehumidification. In addition, it is used in road surfacing to reduce deterioration and render a wet appearance to the road or pavement surface.

2.1.4. Cement

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was used as an additive in all of the experiments, which is a grey powder produced by heating limestone and clay. Its main constituents include calcium oxide, silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, and ferric oxides. This material is classified as Type I in ASTM C150 [32]. The properties of Ordinary Portland Cement were investigated by Azmee et al. [33] and many others. The chemical properties of the local Portland Cement used in this study are given in Table 3.

2.2. Testing Methods

2.2.1. Selecting Cement Dose and Sample Preparation

The testing program involved initial trials to investigate the possible concentrations of cement and calcium chloride that were likely to provide good results and were economical to use. Cement is a well-known stabilizer, but the addition of high amounts of cement will make the soil so rigid and it is non-reusable material, apart from being expensive. The initial addition of 1% cement led to minor improvements. The addition of 2% was selected based on previous studies [34]. This amount will not significantly affect the stabilization cost, and it will be sufficient to enhance the stabilization using calcium chloride. The clay samples were oven dried for 24 h and mixed with different proportions of calcium chloride powder to form mixtures of 4%, 6%, and 8% by dry weight of the sample. A further 2% cement by the dry weight of clay was added to each sample. The prepared samples were mixed with distilled to achieve a 32% water content and placed in an oedometer ring in three layers by hand tamping, to achieve a dry unit weight of 12 kN/m3. The water content and dry unit weight were selected to be close to the optimum values of Al-Qatif clay. Samples were then kept in plastic bags for curing. A curing time of 3, 7, and 28 days was considered for this study.

2.2.2. Oedometer Tests

A one-dimensional swelling test was carried out using a conventional oedometer equipped with displacement sensors and semi-automatic loading control. The tests were conducted in accordance with ASTM D4546-03 [35] (method A). Samples were prepared as given Section 2.2.1. In this method, the sample was allowed to become wet and allowed to swell vertically at a seating pressure until the primary swell was complete. The sample was then loaded in increments and the compression was noted until it was brought down to its original height. The test was then completed as a consolidation test. This method was found to give higher swelling pressure values than the constant volume method [36]. All samples were prepared at an optimum moisture content of 32% and a maximum dry density of 12 kN/m3. All samples tested included 2% cement and the addition of calcium chloride of 4%, 6%, or 8%. As all samples include 2% cement, the curing time was important, and all samples were subjected to curing times of 3 days, 7 days, and 28 days.

2.2.3. Soil Suction

Suction pressure is closely related to swelling and expansion; hence, suction tests were conducted using the selected stabilization mixtures at the three curing times stated above. The samples were prepared as given in Section 2.2.1. The suction tests were carried out using dew point testing equipment (WP4C). This device measures water potential using the humidity of the air above a sample in a sealed chamber.

2.2.4. Unconfined Compression

Unconfined compression tests with stress-strain measurements were conducted for all samples at the selected curing times. The samples were prepared as described in Section 2.2.1 and placed in molds 38 mm in diameter and a 76 mm height. Using hand tamping to achieve the selected dry density. A universal frame attached with displacement and load sensors connected to a data logger was used.

2.2.5. Scanning Electron Microscope

To view the fabric forms of the clay mixed with calcium chloride and cement, five micrographs were examined using an SEM equipped with EDX. The samples prepared for SEM testing were cut into small pieces to fit a specific mold size. To maintain the intact fabric, the saturated samples were dried using the freeze-drying technique. The SEM was employed to observe the microfabric features under different magnifications. The experiments were conducted on the JOEL apparatus (Model JSM-7600F) operated at 5–10 kV with a resolution of 3.00 nm. The SEM images recorded the existing spread of environmental-pollution diseases due to Portland cement industries: green nano clay applications at 1000× and 10,000× magnifications. The first magnification of 1000× is aimed at viewing the repeated features of pores within a selected area, while the higher magnification of 10,000× is aimed at viewing the particle shape and edge-to-edge contact features. Figure 13 shows the SEM micrographs of all the mixtures of clay with calcium chloride and cement.

2.2.6. X-ray Diffraction

Two samples were examined for X-ray diffraction. The first one is an oven-dry Al-Qatif clay with 2% cement and the second one is an oven-dry Al-Qatif clay including both cement and calcium chloride (2% cement and 8% calcium chloride). The samples were mounted in aluminum frames, before being subjected to radiation. This study was only qualitative and reflected typical peaks with variations in the peak intensities. The radiation was produced using a Cu target at a voltage of 40 kV and a current of 30 mA. Clear peaks were not observed in the 2 θ region of 5 to 15 θ, but the smectite group and clay minerals present were affected by high-intensity peak located at 2 θ value of less than 5 θ.

3. Results and Discussion

The swell potential is a direct measure of the effect of calcium chloride with cement on the behavior of naturally expansive clay, which is well demonstrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2. A short curing period of 3 days was not sufficient to afford the required reduction in the swell potential of clay with calcium chloride contents of 4% and 6%. Notably, the curing period was crucial for the clay with the added 2% cement. An improvement in swell behavior due to the addition of calcium chloride with cement is expressed as a reduction in the swell potential. An 8% reduction is observed for clay with 4% calcium chloride and a 25% reduction is observed with 8% calcium chloride. Samples prepared and cured for 28 days were found to be not better than those cured for 7 days. Typically, a curing period of 7 days for concrete produces greater than 75% of the 28-day strength. Factors other than curing can cause such conditions, which include the non-uniform distribution of additives or non-identical placement conditions. Generally, for the addition of up to 8% of calcium chloride with cement, the higher the calcium chloride in the clay, the higher reduction in the swell potential.
Reduction in the swelling pressure by 37.4% and 28% was observed in the clay samples cured for 28 days for clay including calcium chloride and cement at 8% and 4%, respectively (Figure 3 and Figure 4).
The compression index estimated at a stress of 200 kN/m2 was investigated for Al-Qatif clay treated with 4%, 6%, and 8% calcium chloride and 2% cement. The compression index is decreased with the increase in the calcium chloride content. This result indicated that a higher strength is observed for the clay due to the cement and calcium chloride (Figure 5 and Figure 6). It is worth noting that when adding an accelerator or a retarder to a cement mixture, the time to develop the strength may not be uniform and depends on the hydration taking place in the mixture.
Increased suction is developed by the addition of calcium chloride, and suction is directly proportional to the percentage of the added calcium chloride (Figure 7 and Figure 8). Generally, a high suction is associated with high swelling clays, but the increases in suction do not necessarily cause more swelling. This is due to the addition of cementing agents, which maintain strong particle-to-particle bonds [11]. The expansion will be arrested even at a high suction pressure. In some cases, a sulfate heave was reported to take place in clays rich in sulfate and sulfide (>3000 ppm) by the stabilization of clays using calcium-based additives [11,37].
Stabilizers containing calcium can increase the pH, leading to the dissolution of clay minerals and the formation of Ettringite minerals as a result of the combination of sulfate minerals, water, and calcium. This mineral can swell more than two times its original volume.
From the investigation of the compressive strength and the stress–strain behavior, the unconfined compressive strength is slightly reduced by the addition of a high content of calcium chloride. The loss of strength is expected because calcium chloride is a soluble salt and can slowly dissolve in water. As a result, voids can form within the soil mass, which can provide room for the soil to swell, and this phenomenon is reflected as an overall reduction in the heave. The slight reduction in strength is not a serious issue compared to swelling and expansion. With cement, only the strength of the clay was increased, and it reached its maximum at a curing period of 28 days, but with the addition of calcium chloride, the compressive strength was lower (Figure 9 and Figure 10). The influence of 7- and 28-day curing periods on the stress versus axial strain is shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12.
The EDX chemical estimates for the points viewed by SEM indicated that the chloride content (computed as KCl) increases with the calcium chloride content. The other chemical compositions varied slightly. Table 4 summarizes the EDX results and the chemistry of clay at the points viewed. The SEM images with 1000× and 10,000× magnification for clays with cement and calcium chloride indicated typical flakes and particle-to-particle contact. The Al-Qatif dry clay particles are shown as twisted flakes and voids shown in black are dominant. With the increase in the calcium chloride content, the crinkled particle nature of clay with cement becomes flatter, and the pore intensity decreased (Figure 13). Square marks are added to some images to highlight the twisted and flattened flake conditions.
The mineralogy as detected by the XRD patterns shown in Figure 14 indicated the similarity of peaks for treated and untreated clay. The pozzolanic compounds formed due to cement were not reflected in Figure 14, but the peaks expected at a 2 θ value of 35 may be affected by a neighboring high-intensity peak. Notably, the background intensity in Figure 14 increased at 2 θ values ranging from 5 to 15, and reduced at 2 θ, ranging from 20 to 40 compared to Figure 14. The intensity corresponds to quantities, and the addition of the calcium chloride affects the mineral concentrations, leading to different peak intensities. The peaks corresponding to chlorite, illite, mica, and quartz were visible. The peaks corresponding to newly formed pozzolanic compounds were not detected. The mineralogy remained unchanged for all of the different mixtures. Figure 14 shows the typical charts indicating the detected peak intensities.
Using calcium chloride and cement together can help in controlling the moisture and stabilizing the mix. The cement provides additional strength and stabilization. This combination of materials can be particularly effective in improving the stability and performance of soils in construction projects, such as light structure foundations, roadways, and other structures built on hazardous expansive soils.
The practical implication of this study includes a new choice for the treatment method that is likely cheaper and more effective compared to a single additive approach. The future directions can be fine-tuned to obtain the optimum combination that is suitable for each region of different mineralogy. The optimum calcium chloride content for use in the stabilization of expansive soils is dependent on many factors, including the type of soil, mineralogy, and the desired level of stabilization.
The treatment methods conducted to improve the quality of construction materials in general has been an active continuing research area in recent years [38,39]. Recent studies also included the works of Dafalla [40], covering the effect of fluid chemistry on the hydraulic properties of clays. It is worth mentioning that the initial addition of 1% cement led to minor improvements. The addition of 2% was selected based on previous studies. The more cement added, the more the improvement in strength and rigidity. Adding higher amounts of cement will cause the paste to be more rigid and stiff and it will not be easily compacted on site.
The cost of cement is also high compared to other additives. These findings were also quoted by Mutaz et al. [41] and Dafalla et al. [42]. The long-term strength provided by calcium chloride is not necessarily permanent. Therefore, the addition of stronger binders such as cement is advised. Choi [43] stated that the addition of calcium chloride has little effect on soil sensitivity; Table 5 is presented to demonstrate that the use of 4% calcium chloride is of lower cost than using a 6% cement stabilizer. The estimates are based on 2022 average prices in the United States.
The use of calcium chloride alone or in combination with cement to stabilize expansive soil has been found to be effective in many cases. However, there are limitations and practical difficulties associated with these treatments that need to be considered. These include the long-term effects, which are not yet understood. Calcium chloride, if used in high concentrations, can be hazardous. Practical difficulties include mixing, which can be difficult for large-scale projects. The control of moisture content may be critical for the treatment effectiveness and very challenging to achieve in areas with high rainfall.
The parameters that influence the stabilization process include the mineralogy and type of soil, the selected dose of the stabilizer, the mode of mixing, and the compaction level applied on site in addition to curing time. The moisture content during the construction process needs to be controlled.

4. Conclusions

The stabilization of expansive soil is investigated using two combined additives, namely, calcium chloride and cement. Calcium chloride and cement as single chemical additives are known to be successful but each has its limitations. Excessive calcium chloride can reduce swelling, but it causes the strength to decrease sharply due to the soluble nature of the salt. Cement is an excellent binder, but it causes the material to be rigid and stiff and not reusable if added in high concentrations. This study encourages the use of 4–8% of calcium chloride with the addition of 2% cement. The results presented herein indicated a significant improvement in the swell potential, swell pressure, and compressibility. A reduction in the swell potential by 8% to 25% and a reduction in the swelling pressure by 28% to 37.4% were observed for 4% to 8% calcium chloride with a cement addition of 2%.
Cement was found to add sufficient bonding to clay particles and maintain an intact structure, and the calcium chloride will be less affected by leaching. The use of calcium chloride with cement can make crinkled clay particles flatter, and the pore intensity can decrease. This study presents a new choice for an expansive soil treatment that is likely cheaper and more effective compared to single additive approaches.

Author Contributions

A.A.: Supervision, funding acquisition, review, and editing—writing original draft and final version; M.D.: conceptualization, review, and editing—writing original draft and final version; A.A.S.: methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, review, and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by King Saud University through the Researchers Supporting Project, grant number [RSP 2023/279] and The APC was funded by the same project.

Data Availability Statement

All data related to this manuscript are available upon request.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Researchers Supporting Project number RSP-2023/279, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for their financial support for the research work reported in this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. McDowell, C. Stabilization of soils with lime, lime-fly ash, and other lime reactive materials. High. Res. Board Bull. 1959, 231, 60–66. [Google Scholar]
  2. Sherwood, P. Soil Stabilization with Cement and Lime. State of the Art Review; Transport Research Laboratory, HMSO: London, UK, 1993. [Google Scholar]
  3. Liu, Z.Y.; Xue, Y.G.; Wang, X.J. Experimental study on mechanical behaviours of lime-stabilized soils with small lime content. Adv. Mater. Res. 2012, 374, 1823–1826. [Google Scholar]
  4. Wang, D.; Abriak, N.E.; Zentar, R. Strength and deformation properties of Dunkirk marine sediments solidified with cement, lime and fly ash. Eng. Geol. 2013, 166, 90–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Barman, D.; Dash, S.K. Stabilization of expansive soils using chemical additives: A review. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 2022, 14, 1319–1342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Eades, J.L.; Grim, R.E. A Quick Test to Determine Lime Requirements for Lime Stabilization. Highw. Res. Rec. 1966, 139, 61–72. [Google Scholar]
  7. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Soil Stabilization for Pavements; Technical Manual, TM 5-822-14; Department of the Army and Air Force of United States: Washington, DC, USA, 1994. Available online: https://wbdg.org/ffc/army-coe/technical-manuals-tm/tm-5-822-14 (accessed on 1 April 2023).
  8. Bell, F.G. Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils. Eng. Geol. 1996, 42, 223–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Puppala, A.J.; Mohammad, L.N.; Allen, A. Engineering behavior of lime-treated Louisiana subgrade soil. Transp. Res. Rec. 1996, 1546, 24–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Puppala, A.J.; Wattanasanticharoen, E.; Hoyos, L.R. Ranking of four chemical and mechanical stabilization methods to treat low-volume road subgrades in Texas. Transp. Res. Rec. 2003, 1819, 63–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Puppala, A.J.; Talluri, N.S.; Chittoori, B.S.; Gaily, A. Lessons learned from sulfate induced heaving studies in chemically treated soils. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of the international conference on ground improvement and ground control. Res. Publ. 2012, 1, 85–98. [Google Scholar]
  12. Miller, G.A.; Zaman, M. Field and laboratory evaluation of cement kiln dust as a soil stabilizer. Transp. Res. Rec. 2000, 1714, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Morse, J.W.; Arvidson, R.S.; Lüttge, A. Calcium carbonate formation, and dissolution. Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 342–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Shon, C.-S.; Saylak, D.; Mishra, S.K. Combined use of calcium chloride and fly ash in road base stabilization. Transp. Res. Rec. 2010, 2186, 120–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Belabbaci, Z.; Mamoune, S.M.A.; Bekkouche, A. Laboratory Study of the Influence of Mineral Salts on Swelling (KCl, MgCl2). Earth Sci. Res. 2013, 2, 135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Sasanian, S.; Newson, T.A. Basic parameters governing the behaviour of cement-treated clays. Soils Found. 2014, 54, 209–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Moghal, A.A.B.; Dafalla, M.A.; Elkady, T.Y.; Al-Shamrani, M.A. Lime leachability studies on stabilized expansive semi-arid soil. GEOMATE J. 2015, 9, 1467–1471. [Google Scholar]
  18. Zumrawi, M.M.E.; Mahjoub, A.M.M.; Alnour, I.M. Effect of some chloride salts on swelling properties of expansive soil. Univ. Khartoum Eng. J 2016, 6, 35–41. [Google Scholar]
  19. Zumrawi, M.M.E.; Eltayeb, K.A. Laboratory investigation of expansive soil stabilized with calcium chloride. Int. J. Environ. Chem. Ecol. Geol. Geophys. Eng. 2016, 10, 223–227. [Google Scholar]
  20. Saylak, D.; Mishra, S.K.; Mejeoumov, G.G.; Shon, C.-S. Fly ash-calcium chloride stabilization in road construction. Transp. Res. Rec. 2008, 2053, 23–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Murty, V.R.; Hari, K.P. Stabilisation of expansive clay bed using calcium chloride solution. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Ground Improv. 2008, 10, 39–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Suresh, R.; Murugaiyan, V. Microstructural behavior of expansive soil using calcium chloride and alccofine. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 46, 8397–8403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Legas, S.K. Stabilization of Expansive Soil Using Cement Blended Pumice. Master’s Thesis, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  24. Al-Jabban, W.J. Soil Modification by Adding Small Amounts of Binders a Laboratory Study. Ph.D. Thesis, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  25. Abduljauwad, S.N. Characteristics and chemical treatment of expansive clay in Al-Qatif, Saudi Arabia. Eng. Geol. 1991, 31, 143–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Azam, S. Influence of mineralogy on swelling and consolidation of soils in eastern Saudi Arabia. Can. Geotech. J. 2003, 40, 964–975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Shamrani, M.A.; Mutaz, E.; Puppala, A.J.; Dafalla, M.A. Characterization of problematic expansive soils from mineralogical and swell characterization studies. In GeoFlorida 2010: Advances in Analysis, Modeling & Design; Fratta, D.O., Puppala, A.J., Muhunthan, B., Eds.; American Society of Civil Engineers: Reston, VA, USA, 2010; pp. 793–802. ISBN 9780784410950. [Google Scholar]
  28. Moghal, A.A.B.; Abbas, M.F.; Al-Mahbashi, A.M.; Shaker, A.A. Effect of structure anisotropy and compaction method on the swelling behavior of Al-qatif soil. Int. J. Geomate 2016, 11, 2600–2605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Dafalla, M.A. The compressibility and swell of mixtures for sand-clay liners. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2017, 2017, 3181794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Elkady, T.Y.; Shaker, A.A. Role of Cementation and Suction in the Swelling Behavior of Lime-Treated Expansive Soils. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2018, 30, 04018073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Abbas, M.F.; Elkady, T.Y.; Aldrees, A.A.; Shaker, A.A. Impact of stress path on hydraulic and mechanical behavior of compacted Al-Qatif clay. Transp. Geotech. 2021, 26, 100417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. C150/C150M–16; Standard Specification for Portland Cement. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2015.
  33. Azmee, N.; Abbas, Y.M.; Shafiq, N.; Fares, G.; Osman, M.; Iqbal Khan, M. Enhancing the Microstructure and Sustainability of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Using Ultrafine Calcium Carbonate and High-Volume Fly Ash under Different Curing Regimes. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Mutaz, E.; Dafalla, M.A.; Shamrani, M.A. Stabilization of Al-Ghatt Clay Shale by Using a Mixture of Lime and Cement. In Road Materials and New Innovations in Pavement Engineering, Proceedings of the GeoHunan International Conference 2011, Changsha, China, 9–11 June 2011; American Society of Civil Engineers: Reston, VA, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. D 4546–03; Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional Swell or Settlement Potential of Cohesive Soils. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2003.
  36. Fathih, E.; Ali, M.; Muawia, A.D.; Elturabi. Comparison of Two Methods for the Measurement of Swelling Pressure. Barton, ACT. 1984. Available online: https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.826800240387612 (accessed on 1 April 2023).
  37. Hunter, R.D. The Geochemistry of Lime-Induced Heave in Sulfate-Bearing Clay Soils; University of Nevada: Reno, NV, USA, 1989; ISBN 9798207684307. [Google Scholar]
  38. Ren, J.; Xue, Y.; Zhang, J.; Liu, B.; Luo, S.; Xu, S.; Xing, F.; Liu, M. Pre-treatment of reclaimed concrete slurry waste for substituting cementitious materials: Effect of treatment approach and substitution content. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 380, 134987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Ren, J.; Zhou, Q.-Z.; Yang, C.-H.; Bai, Y. Performance and interaction of sodium silicate activated slag with lignosulfonate superplasticizer added at different mixing stages. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2023, 136, 104900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Dafalla, M. Effect of Fluid Chemistry on the Consolidation and Hydraulic Conductivity of Sand-Clay Liners. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Mutaz, D.E.; Shamrani, M.A.; Puppala, A.J.; Dafalla, M.A. Evaluation of chemical stabilization of a highly expansive clayey soil. Transp. Res. Rec. 2011, 2204, 148–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Muawia, D.; Mutaz, E.; Al-Shamrani, M. Compressive strength variations of lime-treated expansive soils. IFCEE 2015, 2015, 1402–1409. [Google Scholar]
  43. Choi, H.J. Soil Stabilization Using Optimum Quantity of Calcium Chloride with Class F Fly Ash. Master’s Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
Applsci 13 04811 g001 550
Figure 1. The variation of the swell potential versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Figure 1. The variation of the swell potential versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Applsci 13 04811 g001
Applsci 13 04811 g002 550
Figure 2. The swell potential of clay treated with CaCl2 (2% cement added) at different curing times.
Figure 2. The swell potential of clay treated with CaCl2 (2% cement added) at different curing times.
Applsci 13 04811 g002
Applsci 13 04811 g003 550
Figure 3. The variation of the swell pressure versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Figure 3. The variation of the swell pressure versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Applsci 13 04811 g003
Applsci 13 04811 g004 550
Figure 4. The swell pressure of clay treated with CaCl2 (2% cement added) at different curing times.
Figure 4. The swell pressure of clay treated with CaCl2 (2% cement added) at different curing times.
Applsci 13 04811 g004
Applsci 13 04811 g005 550
Figure 5. Variations of the compression index versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Figure 5. Variations of the compression index versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Applsci 13 04811 g005
Applsci 13 04811 g006 550
Figure 6. The compression index of the clay treated with CaCl2 (2% cement added) at different curing times.
Figure 6. The compression index of the clay treated with CaCl2 (2% cement added) at different curing times.
Applsci 13 04811 g006
Applsci 13 04811 g007 550
Figure 7. The variation of suction versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Figure 7. The variation of suction versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Applsci 13 04811 g007
Applsci 13 04811 g008 550
Figure 8. The suction of the clay treated with CaCl2 (2% cement added) at different curing times.
Figure 8. The suction of the clay treated with CaCl2 (2% cement added) at different curing times.
Applsci 13 04811 g008
Applsci 13 04811 g009 550
Figure 9. Variations of UCS versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Figure 9. Variations of UCS versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Applsci 13 04811 g009
Applsci 13 04811 g010 550
Figure 10. UCS of the clay treated with CaCl2 and 2% cement at different curing times.
Figure 10. UCS of the clay treated with CaCl2 and 2% cement at different curing times.
Applsci 13 04811 g010
Applsci 13 04811 g011 550
Figure 11. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 7 days.
Figure 11. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 7 days.
Applsci 13 04811 g011
Applsci 13 04811 g012 550
Figure 12. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 28 days.
Figure 12. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 28 days.
Applsci 13 04811 g012
Applsci 13 04811 g013a 550Applsci 13 04811 g013b 550
Figure 13. The SEM images of samples (a) for Al-Qatif clay pure, (b) with 2% cement, (c) for 2% cement +4% CaCl2, (d) for 2% cement +6% CaCl2, (e) for 2% cement +8% CaCl2.
Figure 13. The SEM images of samples (a) for Al-Qatif clay pure, (b) with 2% cement, (c) for 2% cement +4% CaCl2, (d) for 2% cement +6% CaCl2, (e) for 2% cement +8% CaCl2.
Applsci 13 04811 g013aApplsci 13 04811 g013b
Applsci 13 04811 g014 550
Figure 14. The XRD profile for Al-Qatif natural clay compared with the addition of 2% cement and 8% CaCl2.
Figure 14. The XRD profile for Al-Qatif natural clay compared with the addition of 2% cement and 8% CaCl2.
Applsci 13 04811 g014
Table
Table 1. The physical properties of the Al-Qatif clay. After [27].
Table 1. The physical properties of the Al-Qatif clay. After [27].
PropertyRange
Material passing sieve number 200>90%
Liquid Limit %130–150
Plastic Limit %60–70
Plasticity Index70–80
Maximum Dry Density (kN/m3)11.5–12
Optimum Moisture Content32–40%
Swell percent (ASTM D4546)16–18%
Swelling pressure (ASTM D4546)500–800 kN/m2 (γ = 12 kN/m3)
Table
Table 2. The chemical composition of the Al-Qatif clay. After [27].
Table 2. The chemical composition of the Al-Qatif clay. After [27].
K+
(%)		K2O
(%)		Al
(%)		Al2O3
(%)		Si
(%)		SiO2
(%)		Ca2+
(%)		CaO
(%)
1.82.23.36.38.117.30.70.9
Table
Table 3. The chemical properties of a typical OPC.
Table 3. The chemical properties of a typical OPC.
OxidesPercentages
SiO219.97
Al2O35.55
Fe2O33.96
TiO20.36
MnO0.06
MgO0.75
CaO65.98
Na2O0.08
K2O0.13
P2O50.05
SO33.08
L.O.I.4.00
Table
Table 4. Chemical composition of Al-Qatif clay with 2% cement and different % CaCl2.
Table 4. Chemical composition of Al-Qatif clay with 2% cement and different % CaCl2.
Chemical CompoundMgO
(%)		Al2O3
(%)		SiO2
(%)		KCI
(%)		CaSiO3
(%)		FeS2
(%)		Fe2O3
(%)		CaCO3
(%)
0% CaCl24.236.7922.80.315.910.65.63-
4% CaCl23.656.4822.072.276.040.864.723.16
6% CaCl23.926.4321.532.976.480.95.21-
8% CaCl23.635.8319.53.66.210.674.58-
Table
Table 5. The estimated cost of cement and calcium chlorides stabilizers for a 1000 m3 road section.
Table 5. The estimated cost of cement and calcium chlorides stabilizers for a 1000 m3 road section.
ItemUnitUnit Price for Cement
per Ton in USD		Unit Price for Calcium
Chloride per Ton in USD		Estimated Cost
of the Stabilizer in USD
Quantity of road volume to be stabilized1000 m3150110-
Weight of cement required for 2% stabilizer36,698 kg5504.7
Weight of cement required for 4% dose73,396 kg11,009.4
Weight of cement required for 6% dose110,094 kg16,514.1
Weight of calcium chloride for 4% dose73,396 kg8073.56
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Almajed, A.; Dafalla, M.; Shaker, A.A. The Combined Effect of Calcium Chloride and Cement on Expansive Soil Materials. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084811

AMA Style

Almajed A, Dafalla M, Shaker AA. The Combined Effect of Calcium Chloride and Cement on Expansive Soil Materials. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(8):4811. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084811

Chicago/Turabian Style

Almajed, Abdullah, Muawia Dafalla, and Abdullah A. Shaker. 2023. "The Combined Effect of Calcium Chloride and Cement on Expansive Soil Materials" Applied Sciences 13, no. 8: 4811. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084811

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop