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Article

Strength and Deformation Analyses of Selected Filaments for Large-Format Additive Manufacturing Applicable to the Production of Firefighting Water Tanks

by
Michaela Hnilicová
1,
Stanislav Kotšmíd
1,
Miroslav Dado
2 and
Richard Hnilica
2,*
1
Department of Mechanics, Mechanical Engineering and Design, Faculty of Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia
2
Department of Manufacturing Technology and Quality Management, Faculty of Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 5148; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125148
Submission received: 12 March 2024 / Revised: 5 June 2024 / Accepted: 12 June 2024 / Published: 13 June 2024
Browse Figures
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Abstract

:
Large-format additive manufacturing is a candidate for tremendous savings in terms of time and cost while simultaneously enabling higher flexibility, quality, and variability. Most of the design constraints of small-scale polymer 3D printers still apply to large-format additive manufacturing. The paper details both the strengths and deformation-related design considerations for additive manufacturing to gain a better understanding of the material capabilities and limitations, mechanical characteristics, and how to use them for large-format additive manufacturing (LFAM). The results show that the tested materials for additive manufacturing meet the requirements from the stress and deformation points of view. Compared to the steel and composite material, the strength limits are lower, but high enough for the given load. The materials HI TEMP, HI TEMP CF, PA12CF, PA6/66, and PLA seem to be the most promising for LFAM to create a firefighting water tank. The results may be considered as an introduction to further research that should lead to real solutions for the production of atypical tanks.

1. Introduction

Nowadays, composite materials play an increasingly important role in component production. The main reason for their use is part of the effort to replace steel and other metals, reduce the weight, and increase the strength, chemical, and corrosion resistance. The components made of composite materials have excellent properties that cannot be achieved using other materials. Their use is universal, from the aviation to automotive industries including energy and mechanical engineering [1]. Usually, a load-bearing composite consists of a reinforcement such as fibers, particles, flakes, whiskers, or fillers. The reinforcement is impregnated in a polymer, metal, or ceramic matrix depending on the application field. When it is manufactured properly, the new combined material exhibits properties superior to the constituent materials [2,3]. The mixing of two polymers to create composite materials is a chemical process that results in a new compound. In contrast, adding fibers to a material without full integration is a physical mixing. Specifically, the so-called advanced fibers (e.g., carbon, boron, Al2O3, and SiC) are of most interest, which have a high strength and stiffness combined with a low density [4].
When discussing additive technologies or additive manufacturing (AM), they enable the affordable production of large-format bulky models that are reliable, safe, and above all, fast. It uses the proven FDM technology, in other words, the laying of molten thermoplastic in individual layers in the form of a three-dimensional template. The possibility of the composite usage is often affected by two basic factors: on the one hand, excellent mechanical properties, and, on the other hand, a relatively complex production technology connected with a relatively higher price. Currently, great emphasis is placed on the development of materials that are used in almost every branch of industry. Materials such as steel, aluminum, or magnesium are limited, and new materials must be developed in the effort to achieve higher mechanical properties. The latest trends include composite materials that are sufficiently light and have good mechanical properties. However, the possibility of using these materials for additive manufacturing has been acknowledged; specifically, large-format additive manufacturing (LFAM)—a technology based on material extrusion [5].
In [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22], the authors also discuss the recent applications of fiber reinforced 3D printed polymers, high-temperature polymers, and the FDM 3D printing of thermoplastic elastomeric materials with different structural applications. References [21,22] summarized the current status of the high-temperature printing of thermoplastic polymers in light of identifying the key factors for the use of these materials for various industries.
The loading method, component shape, and technology of its production place a number of requirements on the material. These are often contradictory and unfulfillable with the properties of a homogeneous material. The choice of a material then means a compromise based on a primary property and the lack of other properties that is solved by, for example, allowing a lower lifetime of the component, increasing the cross-section, switching to another technology, etc. Sometimes, it is necessary to change the design of the component or even the entire solution concept. Combined materials represent a qualitative change in the solution of the contradiction between the required properties and the possibilities of homogeneous materials [23].
The reduction in the component weight, together with the maintaining strength properties, are the main reasons for the use of new materials (glass, carbon fiber, materials for additive manufacturing, etc.) in the solution of superstructures (tanks) for basic machines used for extinguishing fires. Moreover, one of the important parameters is the reduction in production costs; however, the economic side of production is not included in the research. The materials for large-format additive manufacturing such as composite materials have the advantage in that they can be produced in practically any shape.
Additive manufacturing (AM) has expanded significantly in recent years, which makes it possible to produce parts of various shapes and sizes with the required surface quality [5]. It should be noted here that when it comes to high-volume printing, there are currently still limitations related to the print volume and low print speed of commercial 3D printers. Most extrusion-based 3D printers have a production speed of 20 cm3/h [24]. LFAM systems, according to [24], will soon provide us with a production speed of ~16,400 cm3/h. According to [25], the unique abilities of additive manufacturing include:
  • Shape complexity (possibility to design and produce any shape);
  • Hierarchical complexity (multi-level structures can be designed and manufactured from microstructure to mesostructure (millimeter scale) up to the macrostructure scale of a component);
  • Material complexity (material can be applied in spots or in layers, which ensures the production of more complex and variable material compositions);
  • Functional complexity (functional elements and assemblies can be produced immediately).
Due to low production speeds, design, and space limitations, in most cases, additive manufacturing is focused on the production of smaller parts and products [26]. In [27,28,29,30], the authors state that one of the key aspects of the introduction of large-volume AM technologies was the increase in the construction chamber, the volume of printing, and its speed. Here, it should be noted that with new LFAM technologies also come new rules and guidelines for their optimal use. However, LFAM also creates new conditions and possibilities in researching and testing filaments in various applications in the manufacturing industry [31].

2. Materials and Methods

The previous research on firefighting systems for extinguishing forest fires was used as a base for the investigation of large-scale additive manufacturing. The design of such systems relates to the solution of transporting enough water to the place of an intervention, which relates to complex terrain conditions (mountain forests). The tanks of most tank car sprayers (TCSs) are made of steel or a composite material. Since it is necessary to transport enough water to the place of an intervention (2000 L), the amount of water represents a high weight. Therefore, we see a solution for fire protection systems in the use of large-scale additive manufacturing to produce tanks where the focus is placed on the strength analysis of the materials used in large-format additive manufacturing, which would be applicable to the production of a firefighting water tank for the DATEFF (brand and name) firefighting adapter prototype (Figure 1) [32].
The water tank of a DATEFF firefighting adapter has a volume of 2000 L and is made of the composite material. The tank construction serves as the basis for the stress simulations using different 3D materials, steel, and composite materials. This tank shape was based on an existing tank made of composite material, as can be seen in Figure 1. The dimensional design of the water tank formed the basis shape for which we solved the model simulations of the strength and the deformation analyses of various filaments (materials) used in large-scale additive manufacturing. We also used this design for the model simulations of the composite material and steel. The shape of the tank was modeled in the 3D modeling software Creo Parametric 9.0.0.0 as a basis for the production of a water tank made of composite material. The model was further used in simulations. The above shape was made of the composite material, while in the future, we would also like to use 3D filaments in order to produce different designs in pieces, either for the above-mentioned DATEFF adapter, or various other tanks adapted to different loading platforms of the transport base machines. The production of such a tank is time-consuming compared to the use of 3D printing, while current developments in this field open up new ways of using LFAM technology. First of all, it is necessary to conduct an FEM analysis of the different filaments that are used in this technology.
To verify the material suitability, static stress and displacement analyses were performed by the finite element method using the Ansys 19.2 software. A preliminary study of the mesh grid size was carried out where four node fully integrated shell elements were used. On the basis of the study, 34,640 elements were used to create the FEM model. Concerning the boundary conditions, the tank geometry was considered as symmetrical along the longitudinal direction, while the friction contact between the bottom side and fix plate was created to avoid the impossibility of the tank bottom deformation. The tank was loaded by the hydrostatic pressure that increases linearly from the water level to the tank bottom. We took the hydrostatic pressure as a sufficiently representative parameter. The tank was mounted on a forest-wheeled tractor whose speed was relatively slow. Of course, we are also aware of the influence of dynamic forces. Due to the complexity of determining the dynamic load, we only considered the hydrostatic pressure. To perform the FEM analysis, a nonlinear geometry was considered, and the theory of large deformation was used. The stress, deformation, and contact status outputs were set to show the results.
The analysis was performed for the steel material as well as for the 3D printing materials such as ABS, ASA, HI-TEMP, HI-TEMP CF, PA6/66, PA12 CF, PETG, PLA, PLX, PRO HT, and TPU. Moreover, the composite material was studied as a 6-layer structure. All materials tested were considered isotropic and homogeneous for the simulation while the wall thickness was set to 6 mm. The material properties are shown in Table 1.
The steel tank was made of the S235JR material (U.S.Steel Košice, SK) produced by the welding technology. The production of the composite tank was carried out by hand in a manufactured wooden mold by depositing six layers consisting of M5 mat and M105TB resin. It is a case of the physical mixing of layers of glass fibers with a resin binder. The M5 chopped strand mat is made from the Advantex® Glass Roving chopped strands and are held together by an emulsion binder, soluble in styrene, which gives the M5 excellent compatibility with UP resins. The basic strand offers a sizing that contains a silane coupling system [33]. The AROPOL™ M105TB (INEOS Composites, Dublin, OH, USA) Low Styrene Emission Resin is a thixotropic pre-accelerated ortophthalic based polyester resin with a moderate gel-time [34]. The resin is suitable for manual lamination or spraying to produce various moldings and composites. The structural solution of the tank is shown in Figure 2. During the simulation, a tank without an upper cover (lid) was considered.
The material for the additive manufacturing was selected from the BigRep manufacturer, which deals with large-format 3D printing. Suitable materials include [35,37,38,39,40,41,42,43]:
▪
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) is a FFF (fused filament fabrication) technology with the characteristics listed in Table 2. It is used in the automotive industry, in industrial applications, and consumer products.
▪
ASA (acrylonitrile styrene acrylate) is a technically high-quality fiber used in the design of industrial parts with the characteristic properties listed in Table 2.
▪
HI-TEMP (biopolymer) is a highly heat-resistant material used in industrial as well as general applications. Its basic characteristics are listed in Table 2.
▪
HI-TEMP CF (biopolymer with carbon fiber) is a durable material with shape stability even when exposed to high temperatures. The basic characteristics are listed in Table 2.
▪
PA6/66 (polyamide 6/6.6 copolymer) is suitable for industrial applications due to the high strength and stiffness of the fiber. The key properties are listed in Table 2.
▪
PA12CF (polyamide 12 carbon fiber) is widely used in many industrial applications due to its strong and heat-resistant fiber. The basic characteristics are listed in Table 2.
▪
PETG (polyethylene terephthalate, glycol-modified) is an alternative to PLA and ABS filaments in terms of strength and toughness. The basic characteristics are listed in Table 2.
▪
PLA (polylactic acid) is used for more demanding industrial production (printing of larger objects) with sufficient strength and stiffness. The key properties are listed in Table 2.
▪
PLX (polylactic acid blend) is a fast-printing filament for the industrial production of large-format products. The key properties are listed in Table 2.
▪
PRO HT (biopolymer) is environmentally friendly, and suitable for the production of general purpose products. The basic characteristics are listed in Table 2.
▪
TPU 98A (thermoplastic polyurethane, Shore 98A) is a flexible fiber that is strong and durable. It is used in the production of wear-resistant parts. The basic characteristics are listed in Table 2.

3. Results

The simulation model of the water tank for the implementation of the strength and deformation analyses was based on the real tank of the DATEFF fire adapter. For our simulation, an open tank without a top cap was considered. We decided this tank shape based on previous applied research [32] dealing with the issues of development and the use of existing forestry techniques for their deployment in mountain forest fires. Based on the Ansys analysis, we conducted a comparison of tanks made of composite materials and different 3D printing materials. The simulation procedure is presented in the Materials and Methods section. Stresses were monitored on the inside and outside surfaces. The results for the 3D printing material are shown in Figure 3, while the results for the steel and composite material are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
As shown, the maximum stress was achieved at the point of an internal stiffener connection. Due to the shell element model, the stress singularity appeared there. and the real stress value is anticipated to be lower. According to the tensile strengths for the individual materials, all of them met the requirement for the allowed stress value. The maximum principal stress of 3D printing materials (28.964 MPa) was achieved for HI-TEMP CF on the inside wall. The lowest stress value (12.937 MPa) was achieved for ABS on the outside wall. When neglecting the stress singularities, the values ranged up to 10 MPa for all 3D printing materials, which were below the mentioned tensile strengths (Figure 3).
The maximum principal stress distribution with higher values was achieved for the steel tank; however, due to the higher yield stress, the values were low enough from the safety point of view. For the composite material, all layers were investigated from the maximal principal stress point of view while the stress value was examined for the layer middle-section point. As shown in Figure 5, all stress values were below the tensile strengths, according to Table 2. For all materials, the maximum displacement was achieved on the side of the tank where the maximum value (19.396 mm) was achieved for ABS, and the lowest (0.4 mm) was achieved for steel.
Based on the comparison of the materials for LFAM, steel, and composite materials based on fiberglass (glass fibers), we were primarily interested in the total weight of the tank. The weight of the tank is important information for determining the carrying capacity and availability of the base machine. The weights of the tank material variants are shown in Figure 6.
On the basis of Figure 6, it can be concluded that the steel had the highest weight. The materials for the additive manufacturing and the used composite were in the range of 26 kg. The specified range is negligible in terms of operation. The maximum weight was noted for the HI-TEMP material (110.46 kg) while the minimum was noticed for PA12CF (84.24 kg). It can be concluded that to produce tanks for additional equipment, it is appropriate to use composite materials that have already been successfully verified in operation. From the weight point of view, it is also advisable to use these materials for additive manufacturing, which could be a prospective production solution in the future.
Based on the stress and deformation analyses (Figure 7 and Figure 8), it can be said that all of the considered materials are suitable for the production of tanks for firefighting adapters. The results of the simulations did not exceed the prescribed limits. Concerning the individual materials, the following can be stated:
  • Steel is a common material for production and has been used for a long time. The steel tanks are produced by welding technology that is not difficult, but on the other hand, if an atypical shape is required, this technology is relatively more demanding to produce. Compared to other materials, steel is several times heavier, which is one of the main disadvantages.
  • Composite materials significantly eliminate the disadvantages of steel. It is clear that the composite material met the stress and deformation requirements. The mentioned and tested material was also used in the production of the DATEFF prototype. When using the composite material, it is necessary to use a mold in which the base material (glass fabric in our case) is applied in layers and connected with a binder in the form of the resin. As with steel, the more complex the shape, the higher the production costs associated with production restrictions.
  • The tested materials for additive manufacturing were satisfactory from the stress and deformation analysis points of view. The limits were lower compared to the steel and composite, but satisfactory for the given load. The production technology is simpler compared to previous materials where an experienced designer and a large-scale 3D printer are sufficient. 3D printing is associated with high design freedom due to the ability to produce any complex geometric shape with minimal structural constraints compared to subtractive techniques [44]. The product can be quickly brought to market due to the shortened design cycle [45]. The authors in [25,46,47,48,49,50,51,52] stated that AM is a candidate for tremendous savings in terms of time and cost while simultaneously enabling higher flexibility, quality, and variability. Compared to subtractive manufacturing, this manufacturing technology has the potential to approach zero-waste manufacturing, leading to significant material savings [53,54,55]. However, the dimensional limits of current 3D printers can be seen as a disadvantage in this case. Nevertheless, development in this direction is in progress [5,31,56,57,58,59,60,61].
To support the results more effectively, we plotted a graph with the stress–mass ratio (Figure 9) for all of the materials analyzed and based our results on the graph shown in Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8. The results in this graph provide us with a better overview as well as the benefits of 3D printable materials. The mass of such tanks compared to the stresses clearly predicts their use for these applications in the future.
Based on the results, HI TEMP, HI TEMP CF, PA12CF, PA6/66, and PLA materials seem to be the most promising materials for LFAM for tank production. With their properties and the simulation results, the mentioned materials meet the requirements to produce a firefighting tank adapter. The other materials for LFAM should not be discarded; however, we are aware of one important feature of additive manufacturing technology in 3D printing. Due to the layering of the material, the tightness of the tank can be affected if the pressed water can leak out through the pores. In other words, the tank can behave like a sponge.
The main finding of this paper is the assessment of 3D materials used in LFAM technology in terms of stress and deformation. Based on the results, filaments were selected that could be useful in the design of different shaped atypical tanks from the point of view of FEA. The shapes of the tanks would be based on specific customer specifications.
Following the results of this initial (baseline) task, we would like to continue testing the selected filaments in the future to further validate the simulation results obtained. Testing and analyses would specifically focus on the different printing structures of the selected filaments and their stress and deformation properties. In this case, it is necessary to work with different samples for which we predict different strength properties, which we will obtain on the basis of the tensile tests. We will also focus on different laminations to control the tightness of the layers, or the use of additional material to ensure that said tightness. The results of the follow-up research are important for a proper 3D printing setup. Of course, testing for the heat resistance of the selected filaments would also be important.
The continuation of further tasks, in order to obtain sufficiently complex results, will in the future be conditioned by the obtaining of suitable projects, or the solution will be covered through the support of economic practical experience. The use of LFAM in the design and manufacture of water tanks for fire brigades and rescuers is high because of the single-piece work. However, it is necessary to support this production with relevant results that should be built on these obtained results. Currently, we have established cooperation with the company ADMASYS, with whom we collaborate in the above-mentioned issue. On the basis of the above-mentioned analyses and tests, we see the possibility of carrying out a test print for the production of a prototype in the future, and thus define a suitable technology. Before this 3D printing, however, it will be necessary to carry out a number of tests and analyses for the selected materials mentioned above.

4. Conclusions

In general, composite materials and materials for large-format additive manufacturing can be used as an alternative to steel structural materials for the production of water tanks. The great advantage of glass or carbon fibers is that they can be molded into various shapes, so they have a wider range of use. The biggest disadvantage of these fibers is their price, which tends to be higher compared to classic materials. Composites based on glass fibers can be used as an alternative to steel structural materials in production, which has also been tested in a real operation.
The disadvantage of composite materials compared to additive manufacturing is the time-consuming production. In this case, it is necessary to make a form that is related to the resulting shape. The more complex the shape is, the more demanding and expensive the production. The mentioned fact disappears in the case of additive manufacturing, where practically any shape can be produced. It is sufficient to have an experienced designer who will design the relevant structure and a large-format 3D printer to produce the designed structure.
The development of large-scale AM has created many opportunities for innovation in the manufacturing industry. It has also created some challenges, especially in the way parts are designed. In this paper, we tried to follow-up on new solutions where it is possible to use AM in the form of LFAM.
Based on the results of the strength and deformation analyses, we see the potential use of LFAM in tank manufacturing as a beneficial technology for the solution of atypical, custom-made water tanks. Of course, the above analyses, as we have already discussed in the results, are an important basis for the next stage of research at our department as well as a suggestion for follow-up research at other departments worldwide that deal with similar problems. We can say that the presented results are an initial (basic) step toward further simulations and analyses. Next, our analyses will focus on testing different 3D printing structures for the selected filaments, testing the tightness of the individual layers, thermal resistance, usability of additive materials added to the filaments, and last but not least, operational testing. In conclusion, we can say that the developments in this field are perspective, and that the results are applicable in the development of this subject in operational conditions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.H., R.H. and S.K.; Methodology, M.H., R.H. and S.K.; Validation, M.H. and R.H.; Formal analysis, M.H., R.H. and S.K.; Investigation, R.H. and S.K.; Resources, R.H. and M.D.; Data curation, R.H. and S.K.; Writing-original draft preparation, M.H., R.H., M.D. and S.K.; Writing-review and editing, M.H., R.H. and S.K.; Visualization, R.H., S.K. and M.H.; Supervision, R.H., S.K., M.H. and M.D.; Funding acquisition, M.D. and R.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The paper was written based on the research intention and solution of the research project “Progressive Research into Utility Properties of Materials and Products Based on Wood (LignoPro)”, ITMS 313011T720, supported by the Operational Program Integrated Infrastructure (OPII) funded by the ERDF.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author (hnilica@tuzvo.sk).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Applsci 14 05148 g001
Figure 1. DATEFF firefighting adapter [32].
Figure 1. DATEFF firefighting adapter [32].
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Figure 2. The water tank; (a) construction; (b) built-in wave-breaks [36].
Figure 2. The water tank; (a) construction; (b) built-in wave-breaks [36].
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Figure 3. Stress–displacement analysis for 3D printing materials.
Figure 3. Stress–displacement analysis for 3D printing materials.
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Figure 4. Stress–displacement analysis for the steel.
Figure 4. Stress–displacement analysis for the steel.
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Figure 5. Stress analysis for the composite material.
Figure 5. Stress analysis for the composite material.
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Figure 6. Comparison of the water tank weights.
Figure 6. Comparison of the water tank weights.
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Figure 7. Comparison of the water tank maximum stress.
Figure 7. Comparison of the water tank maximum stress.
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Figure 8. Comparison of the water tank maximum deformation.
Figure 8. Comparison of the water tank maximum deformation.
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Figure 9. Comparison of strength/mass for different materials.
Figure 9. Comparison of strength/mass for different materials.
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Table 1. Material properties [33,34,35].
Table 1. Material properties [33,34,35].
MaterialE
(MPa)		μ
(-)		ρ
(kg⋅m−3)		m
(kg)		Tensile Strength
(MPa)
Steel210,0000.37850623.84340
ABS14000.35108085.8330
ASA1900108085.8340
HI-TEMP44001390110.4661
HI-TEMP CF7000120095.3665
PA6/662325112089.0167
PA12 CF3500106084.2471
PETG21001270100.9350
PLA3600124098.5460
PLX3150125099.3448
PRO HT33001300103.3145
TPU 98A2410118095.3640
CompositeM105TB resin36000.3107895.7355
M5 mat14,5000.3450 (g·m−2)200
Table 2. 3D printer filament properties [35,37,38,39,40,41,42,43].
Table 2. 3D printer filament properties [35,37,38,39,40,41,42,43].
ABSASAHI-TEMPHI-TEMP CF
High impact strengthHigh impact strengthHigh stiffnessHigh stiff
High heat resistanceUV resistanceLow warpingHigh durable parts
Good stiffnessHigh wear resistanceLow shrinkageLightweight
Good tensile strengthHigh heat resistanceGreat surface qualityClass A surface
Chemical resistanceHigh toughnessHigh heat resistanceHigh heat resistance
Prototype constructionPrototype constructionFunctional modelsFunctional patterns
PA6/66PA12 CFPETGPLA
Heat resistanceHigh tensile strengthChemical resistanceLow warping
Chemical resistanceHeat resistanceHeat resistanceLow shrinkage
High strengthChemical resistanceHigh stiffnessHigh stiffness
Resistant to wearHigh stiffnessHigh strengthHigh strength
Stiffness and ductilityHigh abrasivenessImpact resistanceLow heat resistance
Specialty applicationsAdvanced prototypesPrototyping and designPrototyping and design
PLXPRO HTTPU 98A
High strengthLow warpingFlexible
High robustnessLow shrinkingHigh impact strength
Consistent resultsFood safeDynamic properties
BiodegradableHeat resistanceHigh durability
Low heat resistanceEnvironment friendlyChemical resistant
Durable componentsPractical applicationsBend or compress app.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Hnilicová, M.; Kotšmíd, S.; Dado, M.; Hnilica, R. Strength and Deformation Analyses of Selected Filaments for Large-Format Additive Manufacturing Applicable to the Production of Firefighting Water Tanks. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5148. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125148

AMA Style

Hnilicová M, Kotšmíd S, Dado M, Hnilica R. Strength and Deformation Analyses of Selected Filaments for Large-Format Additive Manufacturing Applicable to the Production of Firefighting Water Tanks. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(12):5148. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125148

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hnilicová, Michaela, Stanislav Kotšmíd, Miroslav Dado, and Richard Hnilica. 2024. "Strength and Deformation Analyses of Selected Filaments for Large-Format Additive Manufacturing Applicable to the Production of Firefighting Water Tanks" Applied Sciences 14, no. 12: 5148. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125148

APA Style

Hnilicová, M., Kotšmíd, S., Dado, M., & Hnilica, R. (2024). Strength and Deformation Analyses of Selected Filaments for Large-Format Additive Manufacturing Applicable to the Production of Firefighting Water Tanks. Applied Sciences, 14(12), 5148. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125148

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