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Article

Valorization of Grass Clipping Waste: A Sustainable Approach to Cellulose Extraction and Paper Manufacturing

by
Azamat Taurbekov
1,2,
Bayan Kaidar
1,*,
Akniyet Baltabay
1,3,
Aigerim Imash
1,2,
Weon-Bae Ko
4,
Jeong-Won Ko
5,
Meiram Atamanov
1,2,
Zulkhair Mansurov
1,2 and
Gaukhar Smagulova
1
1
Institute of Combustion Problems, 172 Bogenbay Batyr Str., Almaty 050012, Kazakhstan
2
Department of Chemical Physics and Material Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Al-Farabi Avenue 71, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan
3
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, 71 Al-Farabi Avenue, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan
4
Department of Chemistry, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarang-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul 01795, Republic of Korea
5
Department of Animal Life Resources, Chemistry Major, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarang-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul 01795, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6680; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156680
Submission received: 27 June 2024 / Revised: 26 July 2024 / Accepted: 27 July 2024 / Published: 31 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resource Utilization of Agricultural Wastes)
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Abstract

:
This study investigates the physical, mechanical, and structural characteristics of handmade paper samples derived from cellulose extracted from grass clippings using two distinct methods as follows: (1) alkali treatment and (2) alkali treatment followed by bleaching, coupled with the incorporation of barium sulfate as a mineral filler. Our investigation revealed that the handmade paper samples’ densities, moisture contents, and thicknesses varied within the ranges of 0.436 to 0.549 g/cm3, 5.60 to 2.51%, and 0.41 to 0.50 mm, respectively. The tensile strength and folding endurance of the papers produced through alkali treatment with barium sulfate were notably superior to those produced from bleached pulp and barium sulfate. Our analysis indicates that several critical factors, including paper density, thickness, the crystallinity index, and the microfibrillar structure of cellulose, intricately influence the mechanical and strength properties of the samples. Using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques, we identified characteristic cellulose bonds and examined cellulose’s crystalline and amorphous phases. Additionally, the crystallinity index of the samples was determined using both the Segal and peak deconvolution methods. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs revealed interconnected networks of cellulose fibers with varying thicknesses and lengths, along with incorporated mineral filler within the cellulose fiber structure. Variations in mineral particle retention were attributed to the presence or absence of cellulose microfibrils. These findings contribute to our understanding of the observed strength characteristics of the paper samples and underscore the potential applications of cellulose derived from grass clippings, especially when combined with barium sulfate as a mineral filler in paper production.

1. Introduction

Cellulose, a fundamental constituent of plant cell walls [1], serves as a crucial raw material across diverse industries, including paper production [2], textiles [3], food packaging [4], and biomedical materials [5]. In recent years, there has been a surge in efforts to develop efficient methods for cellulose production from renewable sources such as plant waste and biomass [6]. This trend reflects a broader commitment to sustainable and environmentally friendly manufacturing practices.
Paper, an ancient product deeply woven into human history, continues to play a vital role in modern society. However, contemporary challenges, such as dwindling wood resources and associated environmental issues, underscore the urgency to identify alternative cellulose sources. Grass clippings, considered a form of municipal waste, offer a promising alternative to traditional wood-derived pulp. In response to this need, many countries facing wood shortages and surplus plant biomass have introduced technologies for cellulose production from herbaceous plants. Recent research efforts have focused on investigating various non-wood materials for cellulose production [7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. Regarding the potential of valorizing herbal waste, one study [14] highlights the environmental benefits of cellulose extraction from this abundant resource.
Furthermore, studies such as that by [15] have demonstrated the feasibility of cellulose production from specific grass species, such as Megathyrsus maximus, achieving a remarkable alpha-cellulose content of 98.50% through delignification and bleaching methods. Grasses inherently possess lower lignin content than wood, making them an attractive cellulose source with robust lignin–carbohydrate bonds. Notably, fibers derived from Napier grass exhibit high cellulose content and minimal lignin and extractives content, rendering them suitable for pulp production [16,17,18,19,20]. In annual plants, libriform cells do not exceed 2 mm in length, while parenchyma cells usually have a round or ellipsoidal morphology with miniature sizes and thin walls [21,22,23]. Parenchyma cells are notably characterized by their elevated resin content [24]. Plant raw materials include cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, pectin, resins, fats, and minerals [25]. Lignin is located in the middle lamella of cells, with the main role of adhesion, and cellulose is the majority of the secondary layer of cell walls, providing resistance. Lignin, an undesirable component in paper production, contributes to the rigidity and fragility of fibers, consequently diminishing the whiteness and durability of resulting paper products [26]. Throughout the chemical–thermal treatment processes applied to grass clippings, such as alkaline treatment or bleaching, many chemical reactions occur, resulting in significant alterations in its chemical composition and structural integrity. A well-documented consequence of such treatments is delignification, wherein the action of sodium hydroxide facilitates a reduction in lignin content within the biomass, achieved through the disruption of bonds between lignin and hemicellulose and within lignin units [27].
Research indicates [28,29] that adding minerals to paper production can significantly enhance its barrier properties, thermomechanical characteristics, and flame resistance. Additionally, the use of mineral fillers can save expensive cellulose, reduce the cost of paper, increase its weight, and improve its whiteness and printability. Barrier properties, including resistance to steam and oxygen, are crucial for maintaining the quality of paper products, particularly in food and pharmaceutical packaging. Commonly used mineral fillers in the paper industry include calcium carbonate [30,31], modified diatomaceous earth [32,33], talc [34], kaolin [35], and titanium dioxide [36]. These minerals are available in both natural and synthetic forms, differing in characteristics such as shape, size, and surface properties.
The addition of minerals plays a crucial role in shaping the paper’s surface, improving its smoothness, printability, and optical and physical attributes. For instance, talc, diatomaceous earth, and calcium carbonate exhibit excellent pore-filling capabilities, resulting in a smoother paper surface and improved print quality. Furthermore, incorporating titanium dioxide can increase paper brightness and optical properties, enhancing its visual appeal.
Despite extensive research on cellulose filling, detailed descriptions of this process still need to be expanded [37]. Consequently, there is a pressing need for additional investigations to enhance our understanding of the fundamental properties of minerals and their interactions with cellulose. For instance, barite (BaSO4) is a mineral filler in paper production because of its high reflectivity [38]. Recent studies [39] have demonstrated that cellulose acetate–barite composite sheets exhibit outstanding reflectivity of up to 98%, underscoring the promising potential of this filler.
The incorporation of barite into paper production not only enhances its reflective properties but also improves its mechanical characteristics [40]. Moreover, barite enhances protection against X-ray radiation, making it a crucial component in producing paper with special properties [41]. Additionally, barite enhances the brightness of paper products and serves as a complementary filler in paper manufacturing, facilitating the attainment of specific properties and characteristics required for various paper types. The versatility of barite as a mineral additive underscores its pivotal role in enhancing paper quality and performance. Consequently, the utilization of barite-based paper production represents a modern direction with substantial potential for enhancing the properties of paper materials. Given the widespread occurrence of barite deposits in Kazakhstan [42], the adoption of barite-based paper production emerges as a contemporary trend with significant prospects for enhancing paper properties.
Numerous factors influence paper’s consumer properties, including the beating (pulp milling) process, the selection of cellulose materials, the incorporation of sizing and coloring agents, the addition of mineral fillers, and the processes of casting, pressing, drying, and calendering [43]. This study evaluates the quality of raw cellulose materials derived from grass clippings and the mineral filler barium sulfate used to produce handmade paper.
This investigation focuses on the physical, mechanical, and structural characteristics of handmade paper samples derived from cellulose extracted from grass clippings using two distinct methods as follows: alkali treatment and bleaching, coupled with the incorporation of barium sulfate as a mineral filler. The objectives include highlighting the properties of the obtained paper, such as density, tensile strength, and folding endurance, and detailing the methods used to achieve these properties.
The grass clippings (Festuca arundinacea) utilized in this study were collected from A. Baitursynov Park in Almaty, Kazakhstan, during the autumn of 2023. Almaty has about 130 green zones, including parks, squares, groves, boulevards, and alleys. The average morphological composition of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Almaty comprises approximately 28% of garden, wood, packaging, and cardboard waste. The total amount of MSW generated per year is approximately 400 thousand tons, with only 25% being recycled. Given these statistics, a significant portion of the MSW comes from garden and wood wastes.
Assuming an average cellulose yield of 39–43% from grass clippings, this could result in a substantial amount of cellulose. At a national level, the potential cellulose yield from grass clippings could significantly contribute to sustainable paper production, reducing reliance on traditional wood sources and boosting recycling efforts.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The grass clippings (Festuca arundinacea) utilized in this study were collected from A. Baitursynov Park in Almaty, Kazakhstan, during the autumn of 2023. All chemical reagents, including sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium permanganate (KMnO4), sodium sulfate pentahydrate (Na2S2O3 5H2O), potassium iodide (KI), soluble starch ((C6H10O5)n), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), were used without purification or additional treatment. Barite was used as a filler, and commercial cellulose was used for comparison in FT-IR spectra. Barium sulfate powder was provided by Sigma-Aldrich (Prague, Czech Republic) with a density of 4.50 g/cm3, and commercial microcrystalline cellulose, 20 µm in size, was purchased also from Sigma-Aldrich and used as a reference compound.

2.2. Cellulose Microfibril Extraction

2.2.1. Raw Material Pretreatment

Fibers of Festuca arundinacea were collected, thoroughly washed, and cut into pieces 2–3 cm in size. The fibers were then dried at a temperature of 70 °C for 8–10 h. After drying, the raw material was ground in a Stegler LM-250 mill operating at 28,000 rotation per minute (rpm) for 5 min. The resulting samples were designated as “initial”.

2.2.2. Method 1: Alkaline Pulping Process

To remove the main portion of lignin and hemicellulose, 5 g of untreated fibers were treated with a 20% NaOH solution at a temperature of 90 °C for 3 h (fiber-to-solution ratio of 1:10 g/mL). Afterward, the obtained cellulose fibers were washed with distilled water and dried. The resulting samples were denoted as “alkali-treated”.

2.2.3. Method 2: Multistep Extraction Process with Bleaching

The extraction process involved a multistep procedure that included alkaline treatment and bleaching. The bleaching process was adapted from the method described in [44] and involved several treatment stages using different reagent concentrations and the repeated application of the process (Figure 1). The lawn grass fibers were initially subjected to a two-step alkaline treatment using a 5% NaOH solution at a 1:20 ratio (raw material–solution). The suspension was heated to 90 °C with constant mechanical stirring at a speed of 400 rpm for 3 h. The residue was then separated from the filtrate by vacuum filtration, and the solid part was washed with distilled water.
Subsequently, the pre-alkali-treated sample underwent three treatments using 5% H2O2, 0.1% NaOH, and 0.1% MgSO4 at 70 °C in solution ratios of 1:20. Another alkaline treatment was then performed to remove impurities, followed by an alkali-peroxide treatment using 5% H2O2, 1% NaOH, and 0.1% MgSO4 at 35 °C for 24 h.
The final stage of treatment was conducted under the same conditions as the first but at a temperature of 45 °C. The resulting samples were designated as “bleached”.

2.3. Preparation of Hand Sheet

The objective of this investigation was to produce paper samples with maximum mineral filler content, thereby reducing the raw material demand on pulp sources and lowering production costs. Our experiments set the maximum mineral filler content at 40% of the total pulp weight. This ratio was selected for both the casting of samples and subsequent analysis. Sheets were fabricated using a hand sheet former (SKZ124B Auto Hand Sheet Former, Jinan, China). A mixture of cellulose mass and mineral filler (barite) in a weight ratio of 6:4 was combined in a glass container and diluted with distilled water to a total volume of 200 mL. The resulting aqueous dispersion of cellulose mass and barite underwent ultrasonic pretreatment at 80 °C for 30 min. The concentration of this dispersion was 5% by weight. Following ultrasonic treatment, the cellulose/barite dispersion was transferred to the casting apparatus and mixed with recycled water. The cellulose/barite slurry was then aerated for 3 min. Subsequently, the water was removed, and the cellulose/barite mass was filtered and dehydrated using a vacuum pump, resulting in circular sheets with a diameter of 200 mm. Finally, the wet paper samples were dried at 90 °C for 7 min (Figure 2). The resulting samples were labeled alkali-treated cellulose/barite (ATc/B) and bleached cellulose/barite (Bc/B).

2.4. Characterization Techniques

2.4.1. Compositional Analysis

A comprehensive series of analytical techniques was employed to characterize the chemical composition of the samples. These analyses included determining the alpha-cellulose content (TAPPI T203 cm-09) [45], ash content (TAPPI T211 om-02) [46], moisture (TAPPI T412 om-02) [47], dry matter content (TAPPI T264 cm-07) [48], and Kappa number, which indicates the lignin content (TAPPI T236 cm-85) [49]. The samples analyzed included initial grass, alkali-treated, and bleached samples.
The composition of grass clippings was studied using the Van Soest method, which is applied for the quantitative gravimetric analysis of all cell wall components, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, soluble compounds, and ash. This study was conducted using a semi-automatic FIWE Advance device. After each treatment, the samples were dried at 105 °C for 16 h and then weighed. The Van Soest method, a quantitative cell wall analysis, was used to determine changes in the proportions of different families of molecules with various grass treatment methods.

2.4.2. Electron and Optical Microscopy

The scanning electron microscope FESEM (Auriga Crossbeam 540, Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray system (EDS Oxford Instruments with AZtec 6.0 software) at the Core Facilities, Electron Microscopy Laboratory (Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan), was used to investigate the structure, dimensions, and morphology of the obtained samples. For the examination of the surface microstructure, a Leica DM 600 M automated digital optical microscope was utilized, which allows for magnifications ranging from 150× to 1500×.

2.4.3. Structural Analysis

The structural and morphological properties of the samples were investigated using a comprehensive suite of analytical techniques. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was conducted within a wave number range of 400–4000 cm−1. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was performed using CuKa radiation (X’Pert PRO MPD PANalytical B.V.) at 40 kV and 40 mA, with a 2θ range extending from 5° to 90°.
The crystallinity of cellulose was determined using XRD spectrum deconvolution to identify latent reflections. This is a crucial step in distinguishing crystalline structures from amorphous ones. The process enables the identification of reflections related to the crystalline structure, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the material’s structural characteristics. Following deconvolution, we applied a method to calculate crystallinity by integrating the area of the identified reflections. This involved analyzing the areas under the intensity curves for both crystalline and amorphous peaks in the X-ray images. This approach provides a reliable assessment of crystallinity and allows for a more accurate evaluation of the impact of chemical heat treatment on the pulp structure. This methodology enables the quantification of crystalline and amorphous regions within the sample through the application of the following equation:
X c = A c − A a m A I c × 100 %
where Xc—crystallinity level, Ac—the total area under the curves of crystalline peaks, AIc—the intensity of the maximum peak of the crystalline phase, and Aam—the area under the curve of the amorphous peak.

2.5. Characterization of Laboratory Samples of Paper Sheets

The fracture strength of the obtained specimens was examined using the TAPPI T 511 om-20 method [50]. The tensile strength of the paper samples was measured using the TAPPI T403 om-15 method [51]. The basis weight of the prepared handmade paper was determined following the TAPPI T 410 om-08 standard method [52]. The thicknesses of the specimens were measured using a Starrett 733 thickness gauge, which provided stable pressure and accurate measurements. The paper density (ρ) was calculated by dividing the paperweight by the paper volume. Moisture content (W) was determined following GOST 13525.19-91 [53], and ash content (X) was determined according to ISO 1762:2015 [54], providing a comprehensive analysis of the material’s characteristics.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Characterization of Cellulose Fibers

3.1.1. Compositional Analysis

The sample of the untreated grass clippings exhibits notable characteristics, including an average moisture content of 5.38%, a high ash content of 14.35%, and a relatively low α-cellulose content of 21.03%. It is pertinent to highlight that the α-cellulose content of plant waste varies depending on its origin. For instance, diverse α-cellulose contents have been reported in different plant materials, such as fallen tree leaves (~40%) [55], banana stems (~50%) [56], rice straw (~36%) [57], poplar sawdust (~40%) [58] poplar bark (~45%) [59], cotton (~90%) [60], and flax (~70%) [61]. Figure 3 shows a compositional analysis of samples originating from the untreated grass clippings alongside cellulose extracted through alkaline and bleaching treatments.
Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the initial grass, the composition after alkaline treatment, and the composition after peroxide and alkaline/bleaching treatment. It is generally recognized that treatment changes the composition of fibers. The amorphous parts dissolve, and thus, the content of hemicellulose, lignin, and wax in the fibers decreases.
The analysis revealed that grass clippings contain approximately 14.06% cellulose by weight. The initial hemicellulose and lignin content in grass clippings were 46.95% and 24.94%, respectively. The alkaline treatment removes amorphous components from the fiber surface, reducing the content of these two components to 21.87% and 12.68%, respectively, while the cellulose content increases to 47.61%. A more significant reduction in hemicellulose and lignin content occurs with peroxide and alkaline treatment. The alkaline-peroxide treatment reduces the hemicellulose and lignin content by 74% and 70%, respectively, compared with their initial levels, and the cellulose content increases to about 65.39%.
Hemicellulose includes heteropolysaccharide structures of plant origin that form the walls of plant cells along with cellulose. Hemicelluloses form significantly shorter branched chains consisting of rings of five and six carbon atoms [62]. Hemicellulose contributes significantly to the paper-forming properties of fibers. It promotes the formation of interfiber bonds within paper sheets and enhances their strength [63]. As key constituents of plant cell walls, hemicellulose and cellulose are vital in providing mechanical strength and elasticity to plant tissues. When subjected to chemical treatments, such as a reaction with sodium hydroxide, hemicellulose undergoes degradation, forming smaller sugar units and increasing alpha-cellulose content in treated samples. For instance, Amit Kumar et al. [64] demonstrated the impact of chemical extraction using different concentrations of sodium hydroxide solution (5–10%) on the yield of α-cellulose from palm grass residues. They found that treatment with a 10% sodium hydroxide solution for 3 h at 170 °C yielded a material with an α-cellulose content of approximately 83%.
Furthermore, the bleaching process enhances the purity of pulp by removing lignin residues and other impurities, thereby improving the overall quality of the cellulose [6]. However, despite the anticipated increase in α-cellulose content following chemical–thermal treatments, some studies have reported only slight changes in the composition of the material under study. For instance, researchers [65] observed that grass clippings subjected to alkali and bleaching treatments had an α-cellulose content of only 59% compared with 52% in the untreated feedstock.
Despite the initially modest α-cellulose content in grass clippings, chemical–thermal treatment induces substantial compositional changes in the feedstock. Our findings reveal that alkaline treatment reduced moisture content to 4.6% and ash content to 3.14%, accompanied by a notable increase in α-cellulose content to 86.16%. Subsequent bleaching treatment decreased the ash content to 1.03%, while α-cellulose content further increased, reaching 87.37%.
However, interpreting the obtained results became more complicated when analyzing the data using the Kappa number. Surprisingly, Kappa number values increased after the bleaching treatment, contrary to the anticipated decrease in lignin content. Notably, the Kappa number findings align with those reported by Danielevich D. et al. [66], who observed Kappa number values ranging from 12 to 17 for various biomass samples. In the context of our study, the observed increase in the Kappa number following chemical–thermal treatment may be attributed to side reactions leading to the formation of chromophores and subsequent elevation of the Kappa number. For instance, Giorgio Tofani et al. [67] highlighted that such reactions are more likely to occur with prolonged reaction times and high levels of hydrogen peroxide, characteristic of biomass processing methods.

3.1.2. Morphological Analysis

The morphological features of the obtained samples were examined using optical microscopy (Figure 4) and scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis (Figure 5). In the optical image of the untreated grass clippings (Figure 4a), microstructured fibers of various sizes and orientations are evident. The sample exhibits individual, non-woven fibers with high density, and in some areas, fibers are adhered together, forming a complex network of intertwined structures. Following mechanical grinding, alkaline treating (Figure 4b), and bleaching (Figure 4c), visible alterations in the structure and texture of the grass clipping sample are observed in both optical and scanning microscopy images. External fibrillation, resulting from mechanical and chemical–thermal influences, is evident, leading to the destruction of fiber surfaces and the separation of fibrils, observed as “lint” on the fiber surfaces [68]. Internal fibrillation causes swelling and hydrating hemicellulose within the fibers, weakening or breaking fiber bonds [69]. The images illustrate a noticeable brightening and homogenization of the sample surface, indicative of removing specific components such as lignin and hemicellulose. Microdispersed fibers of varying lengths and diameters are visible and presented as tangled and unoriented structures. The presence of microdispersed fibers suggests the retention of the fibrous structure of the grass material following all chemical–thermal treatment processes. Following alkaline treatment, the average fiber diameter significantly decreases, typically measuring around 13.5 microns. Subsequent bleaching results in a further reduction in fiber diameter, averaging approximately 4.5 microns. This notable decrease indicates extensive delignification and an increase in cellulose purity.
A detailed examination of the morphological and structural features of the untreated grass clippings using SEM images (Figure 5) revealed fragments of various shapes and sizes. Microscopic analysis indicates that these fragments exhibit diverse surface characteristics, with some displaying smooth surfaces while others appear uneven and rough. This structural variation suggests the presence of different types of cells and tissues comprising the grass structure. The microscopic examination reveals that the grass fragments exhibit a porous structure, with microscopic pores and cavities distributed across the sample surface, indicative of the grass’s complex internal anatomy. However, the presence of various contaminants, such as waxes, oils, and other impurities, is notable and may fill the porous structure of the grass. To further elucidate the chemical composition of the original sample, EDS spectra were obtained (Figure S1), revealing the mass content of elements as follows: C—57.49 wt.% and O—35.52 wt.%. Additionally, impurities of the following elements were identified: Mg (0.10), Si (3.41), P (0.15), S (0.17), Cl (0.59), K (2.18), and Ca (0.39) wt.%.
Following alkaline treatment, the fiber surface becomes more prominent than the untreated samples, as confirmed by the SEM images (Figure 5). A notable reduction in surface defects suggests removing non-cellulosic components and redistributing cellulose chains under the influence of elevated temperatures and chemical reagents. The results show that morphological and structural changes occur in the feedstock after alkaline treatment. Elemental mapping of grass clippings after chemical–thermal treatment, according to the EDS analysis, indicates that the sample primarily comprises C (45.25 wt.%) and O (53.08 wt.%), with minor amounts of Na (0.21), Si (0.67), and Ca (0.79 wt.%). For further insights, the EDS spectra of the sample under investigation are also available (Figure S2).
The SEM images of isolated cellulose samples after bleaching show significant alterations in the material’s structure (Figure 6). Following alkaline treatment, surface modifications and the removal of various impurities are observed, accompanied by the formation of fibrous structures. These changes are attributed to the alkali-induced partial breakdown of cell walls. However, after bleaching, a reduction in the fiber diameter is observed, accompanied by the emergence of belt-like structures, likely resulting from mechanical stress and fiber deformation during the bleaching process. Additionally, a cleaner and more textured surface of the fibers is apparent, possibly due to the elimination of organic contaminants and pigment residues.
EDS analysis, coupled with elemental mapping of a cellulose sample derived from the grass clippings after alkaline treatment and bleaching, reveals a predominant presence of C (44.17 wt.%) and O (50.80 wt.%), consistent with the composition observed after alkaline treatment alone. Minor amounts of Mg (1.90), Si (1.54), and Ca (1.59 wt.%) were also detected in the sample. The presence of Mg is attributed to using a magnesium-containing reagent during bleaching, which may have persisted in small quantities post-processing and purification. Conversely, the increased presence of Si and Ca in the sample after bleaching suggests their preservation from the original raw material and a potential increase due to changes in C and O content, likely resulting from chemical reactions during the bleaching process.

3.1.3. Structural Analysis

Figure 7 illustrates the FT-IR spectra of the following three distinct cellulose materials: commercial pulp, alkali-treated pulp, and bleached pulp. Across all samples, prominent spectral bands are observed at 3391 and 1061 cm−1, corresponding to stretching vibrations of single-bonded ester groups –OH and CO–. This persistence indicates the resistance of these groups to chemical–thermal treatment. For instance, Bhawna Soni et al. [70] employed chemical–thermal treatments, including TEMPO oxidation, to extract cellulose from cotton stems, yet similar spectral bands at 3340 and 1040 cm−1 attributed to –OH and CO are evident in all samples. The peaks at 2906 cm−1 arise from antisymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of CH2. Additionally, all samples exhibit spectra in the region of 1635 cm−1, attributable to adsorbed water interacting with cellulose. The reduction in or absence of spectra associated with hemicellulose and lignin in all samples post-treatment suggests successful delignification and hemicellulose removal. For instance, the absence of spectra at 1728 cm−1 (acetyl C=O groups in hemicellulose) [71] and 1509 cm−1 (stretching of the aromatic C=C ring in lignin) [72] may indicate a decrease in or absence of amorphous components in the cellulose structure. Spectral peaks indicative of cellulose bonds at 1372 cm−1 [73,74], corresponding to a single bond bend of CH in cellulose, peaks at 898 cm−1 [75], reflecting the β-glycosidic bond between glucose, and peaks at 1162 cm−1 [65], corresponding to the C–C ring band and the C–O–C glycosidic ester band, affirm the presence of cellulose in the samples. The absorption intensity ratio of different IR bands helps determine the hydrogen bond intensity (HBI) in cellulose samples, which affects bound water content and structural flexibility. Typically, as HBI increases, crystallinity decreases. HBI was calculated using the absorption ratio of bands at about 3336 and 1320 cm−1, finding values of 1.3, 2.05, and 0.9 for the bleached, commercial, and alkali-treated cellulose samples, respectively.
Figure 8 depicts the acquired XRD spectra for the three samples under investigation (original, alkaline-treated, bleached). To provide a more precise estimation of the crystalline phase content in the material, the peak deconvolution method can be employed [76]. This method utilizes software to separate the amorphous and crystalline contributions to the diffraction spectrum through a curve-fitting process employing the Gaussian, Lorentzian, and Voigt functions [77]. Notably, the Voigt function, which combines characteristics of both the Gaussian and Lorentzian functions, is often preferred for analyzing crystalline peaks [78].
Through a deconvolution process using the Voigt function, crystalline XRD reflections (1–10, 110, 200, and 004) were identified. Then, from the X-ray diffraction patterns of the sample, the areas corresponding to the scattering of crystalline and amorphous domains were isolated. The most intense crystalline reflex (200) corresponding to the interplanar distances between cellulose chains is of particular importance since it is a marker of cellulose crystallinity. The reflections (1–10) and (110) are observed because of scattering from planes located in the diagonal directions of the crystalline lattice. In addition, the reflex (004) refers to X-ray scattering from planes located perpendicularly to the direction of cellulose chains in the crystalline lattice. These findings are consistent with previous studies [79,80,81], where four reflections from the crystalline region were identified. However, it is worth noting that some studies have reported only two or three peaks [82,83,84,85].
Utilizing the acquired data on hidden peaks, the cellulose crystallinity index was calculated. The results yielded values of 44.71%, 89.72%, and 82.41% for the untreated grass clippings, the alkali-treated sample, and the bleached sample, respectively. The observed increase in the crystallinity index for both the alkali-treated and bleached samples, relative to the untreated material, is hypothesized to be a consequence of the efficacious removal of amorphous components. This process ostensibly leads to an augmentation of α-cellulose content within the material’s composition.

3.2. Handmade Paper Characterization

3.2.1. Morphological and Structural Analysis

A comprehensive review of the extant literature reveals a significant paucity of research specifically addressing cellulose–barite composite systems, despite the growing body of knowledge on related cellulose-based composites, thus presenting a compelling opportunity for novel investigations in this domain. For instance, in [86], the authors investigated barium sulfate/regenerated cellulose composite fibers and their resilience to X-ray radiation. They observed that the X-ray attenuation coefficient of the sample increased as the barium sulfate content rose, eventually reaching a lead equivalent dose of 0.1 mmPb. Furthermore, several recent patents detail methodologies for fabricating polymer-based [87] and cellulose-based [88] (not excluding other materials) fibrous composites incorporating barium sulfate for various applications, including filters, radiation shielding, and adsorbents, among others.
This study aimed to produce paper samples with maximum mineral filler content to reduce the demand for cellulose resources and lower production costs. In our experiments, the maximum mineral filler content was set at 40% of the total pulp mass, a ratio applied for sample casting and subsequent analysis.
The SEM images (Figure 9) reveal a unique structure in the molded alkali-treated cellulose/barite and bleached-treated/barite composites. This structure is characterized by a mesh of cellulose fibers with embedded barite particles. The flattened appearance of the fibers, a feature attributed to the structure of the initial raw material (grass clippings), underscores the potential for further flattening during chemical–thermal treatment and sheet molding because of the thinness of the cell walls [89].
Barium sulfate (BaSO4), commonly referred to as barite, exhibits elongated near-oval crystal shapes, as illustrated in Figure S3. These crystals feature prominent crystalline facets and well-defined edges, with a smooth surface devoid of visible defects and pores. The average crystal size measures 1.05 microns.
Based on the results of EDS analysis, it was observed that the carbon content in two paper samples amounts to 40.12% and 36.1% by weight, while oxygen constitutes 42.57% and 49.00% by weight, respectively. The content of silicon, calcium, and magnesium is comparable to the levels found in the original samples of cellulose obtained through alkaline treatment and bleaching (refer to Figure 5). However, the most crucial parameter, as highlighted by the authors, is the barium content, serving as an indicator of the degree of mineral filler retention.
It was demonstrated that the barium content in the handmade paper derived from alkali-treated cellulose is 5.92%, whereas in the bleached cellulose paper, it rises to 14.48% by weight. The lower filler content observed in the alkali-treated cellulose/barite is evident in the SEM images. The authors hypothesize that the increased retention of mineral filler in bleached cellulose/barite is attributed to fibrillation, characterized by the formation of finer cellulose fibrils. This finer fibrillation facilitates greater retention of barite particles. As demonstrated earlier (see Figure 5), the supplementary bleaching procedure induces more pronounced surface degradation of cellulose fibers by removing lignin and amorphous cellulose. Consequently, the surface exhibits a more developed relief structure, enhancing the adhesion of barite particles to the cellulose fiber surface.
Furthermore, SEM examination of the cross-sections of the alkali-treated cellulose/barite and bleached cellulose/barite samples revealed distinct differences. In the case of bleached cellulose, denser paper was formed, attributed to superior filler retention. The paper web exhibited a dense, homogeneous structure, positively impacting its strength characteristics. Conversely, the paper made from alkali-treated cellulose exhibited the presence of cavities and channels within the structure of the paper web.
Indeed, the incorporation of barium sulfate into paper structures can yield several positive effects on the properties and characteristics of the resulting paper and cardboard products including the following:
  • Barium’s high reflectivity contributes to increased whiteness, thereby improving the opacity and brightness of paper products.
  • The high dispersion and stability of morphological parameters facilitate the uniform distribution of particles within the cellulose–mineral filler structure, leading to the high filling of interfibrillar pores.
  • Products based on cellulose–barium sulfate composites demonstrate environmental safety during recycling processes.

3.2.2. Mechanical Characteristics of the Paper Samples

The strength characteristics of paper products are influenced by several factors including the composition and structure of the material, as well as the methods and conditions of technological operations. These factors impact the interfiber bonding forces, which are dependent on parameters such as surface size, the concentration of bonds per unit area, fiber length, strength, flexibility, elasticity, fiber orientation, and the aspect ratio (length-to-width ratio).
The average basis weight of the handmade paper samples was found to be 178.87 g/m2 for the alkali-treated samples and 261.02 g/m2 for the bleached samples. These values reflect the consistency and uniformity of the paper sheets produced during the experiments. In the analysis of strength characteristics presented in Table 2, the authors did not prioritize achieving exceptionally high mechanical property values. Instead, the focus was on assessing the mechanical properties of cellulose fibers derived from grass clippings in combination with mineral filler, specifically barium sulfate.
It is known [90] that the strength characteristics of a cellulose mesh are determined not only by the fiber strength but also by the contact area, the presence of hydrogen bonds between the fibers, and van der Waals forces.
The formation of hydrogen bonds between cellulose fibers has been repeatedly proven. For example, using paper casting in non-polar liquids, it was shown that paper cast using a polar liquid (water) has better strength characteristics than a sample cast in ethanol [91].
Research on the folding endurance of paper after alkali treatment is significantly higher than that of paper after the bleaching process. This can be explained by increased crystallinity and improved adhesion between cellulose fibers after alkali treatment. The decrease in paper durability after bleaching by 13.3% confirms the assumption of partial the destruction of cellulose fibers and a decrease in their ability to adhere mutually. Williams and Krasow [92] note that with an increase in the weight of a sheet, as well as its thickness, the stiffness of the paper increases, but this negatively affects folding strength. It is worth noting that the difference in the thickness of the samples is 18% in favor of the thickness of the bleached paper, which may also indicate a decrease in strength characteristics when folded.
The low values for the number of folds are also consistent with the data in [17], where the number of double folds for handmade paper made from Napier grass and sugarcane pulp ranges from 8 to 106. The low fiber length, strength, and elasticity values explain the low fracture resistance of paper. Among other things, the decrease in hemicellulose content in the sample after the bleaching procedure leads to a decrease in the number of hydrogen bonds between the fibers, which, as a result, negatively affects the flexural strength properties. A decrease in the amount of hemicellulose in the sample can indirectly be evidenced by a decrease in the sample’s moisture content after bleaching compared with the sample after alkaline treatment because hemicellulose is better at hydrolyzing and retaining water in the sample compared with crystalline cellulose regions. This fact is also confirmed by the fact that the quality of grinding cellulose pulp is assessed by the water holding capacity indicator [93]. In addition, the relatively high thickness of the paper sheet may indicate a high degree of fiber splitting during the grinding, alkali treatment, and bleaching processes, resulting in the defibrification of cellulose fibers, which leads to a decrease in strength characteristics.
Indeed, the results of the EDS analysis revealed that the paper made from bleached cellulose exhibited better retention of mineral filler, with a higher barium content (14.48 wt.%) compared with the paper derived from alkali-treated cellulose (5.92 wt.% barium). However, the introduction of filler can potentially decrease the strength of a paper sheet. This reduction in strength can be attributed to the disruption of contact between fibers and a decrease in the number of hydrogen bonds within the cellulose network [94]. Therefore, introducing a mineral filler into paper should be carefully regulated based on the consumer properties the final product needs to meet. Balancing the need for increased filler content while maintaining satisfactory mechanical properties is crucial in achieving the desired performance characteristics of the paper product.
The observation that the tensile strength of paper after alkali treatment is significantly superior to that of paper after bleaching suggests that alkaline treatment not only enhances the quality of cellulose fibers by removing lignin and a portion of hemicellulose but also preserves their mechanical integrity. On the other hand, bleaching, despite increasing the alpha-cellulose content, may have a negative impact on the strength properties because of potential damage to the fibers.
This finding aligns with previous studies [95] indicating that bleaching with more aggressive reagents can result in lower mechanical properties because of the decomposition of polysaccharides in cellulose. Therefore, the choice of bleaching method and reagents should be carefully considered to ensure the preservation of mechanical strength while achieving the desired level of cellulose purity.
As previously mentioned, using pulp derived from grass clippings in conjunction with long-fiber pulp sourced from raw wood materials can enhance the structure and drainage of paper, elevate opacity, augment density and smoothness, decrease air permeability, and boost bulk density. Additionally, incorporating barium sulfate as a mineral filler presents a promising alternative for enhancing the filling of the paper web.
The findings of this study underscore the importance of adopting environmentally friendly and cost-effective strategies to enhance the mechanical and structural performance of handcrafted paper products. More precise control over fiber dispersion and sheet thickness during casting could yield improvements in the mechanical and strength properties of the paper. Looking ahead, both the paper and untreated grass could serve as valuable starting materials for synthesizing various nanomaterials with diverse applications. For instance, they could be used to produce different types of nanocellulose structures (nanocrystalline or nanofibrillar), which find extensive use in filtration [96] energy-related applications [97], and various other fields [98,99,100,101].

4. Conclusions

The research conducted delved into a novel area, assessing various physical, structural, and mechanical characteristics of handmade paper samples derived from cellulose isolated from grass clippings using two methods as follows: alkaline treatment alone and alkaline treatment followed by bleaching, with the addition of barium sulfate as a mineral filler.
The isolated cellulose’s quality was evaluated through EDS mapping, FT-IR analysis, and comparison with commercial cellulose. The results indicated a significant increase in the α-cellulose content after alkaline and bleaching treatments, reaching 86.16% and 87.37%, respectively. Additionally, the high crystallinity index (82.41–89.72%) calculated through peak deconvolution confirmed the quality of the resulting pulp. SEM micrographs of the paper sheets revealed the formation of interconnected networks of cellulose fibers with embedded barium sulfate particles, with higher retention rates observed in the bleached paper, likely because of better fiber splitting during bleaching and surface relief of cellulose fibers.
The mechanical characteristics of the paper samples were also investigated. It was found that the paper made from alkali-treated cellulose and barium sulfate exhibited higher tensile and bending strength compared with the paper made from bleached cellulose and barium sulfate. These findings, combined with other physicochemical and morphological features, suggest that mechanical and strength characteristics were influenced by paper density, thickness, the crystallinity index, and the microfibrillar structure of cellulose.
Overall, this study not only demonstrated the feasibility of using grass clippings for isolating cellulose for paper production but also provided practical insights. To achieve paper sheets with regulated mechanical strength values, it is advisable to combine the resulting cellulose with wood pulp characterized by a high length-to-width ratio. Furthermore, the use of barium sulfate as a filler was deemed economically feasible because of the reduced consumption of cellulose raw materials. Additionally, compared with other fillers, barium sulfate offers advantages such as high whiteness, chemical inertness, and environmental friendliness, making it a promising option for the paper production industry.
Given the widespread occurrence of barite deposits in Kazakhstan, the adoption of barite-based paper production emerges as a contemporary trend with significant prospects for enhancing paper properties. However, because of the small amount of raw material resulting from a park compared with the enormous amount of wood required for a pulp and paper factory, it is crucial to consider the compatibility of mowed grass with the base wood material. Future research should focus on the potential changes in the manufacturing flow and additional implications, such as the integration of grass-derived cellulose with wood pulp to optimize the process and achieve desirable paper properties.
The authors believe that the use of cellulose extracted from annual plants (in particular, from grass) can, to a certain extent, help reduce tree cutting by replacing wood cellulose. The authors suggest that the addition of cellulose extracted from annual plants to the paper industry production cycle will have positive economic and long-term environmental benefits by reducing tree cutting and promoting the sustainable use of plant resources.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app14156680/s1, Figure S1: The Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDS) spectrum of the original sample; Figure S2: The Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDS) spectrum of the sample under investigation (a) alkali-treated (b) bleached; Figure S3: SEM micrograph of the barium sulfate (BaSO4), commonly referred to as barite.

Author Contributions

A.T.: investigation, visualization, and writing—original draft. B.K.: conceptualization, investigation, visualization, methodology, and writing—review and editing. A.B.: methodology and investigation. A.I.: resources and software. W.-B.K.: conceptualization, data curation, and formal analysis. J.-W.K.: data curation and formal analysis. M.A.: software, conceptualization, data curation, and formal analysis. Z.M.: conceptualization, investigation, writing—review and editing. G.S.: project administration, conceptualization, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, supervision, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan supported this work through the project AP13068375.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in this article and supplementary material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram depicting the process of extracting cellulose from grass clippings through bleaching.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram depicting the process of extracting cellulose from grass clippings through bleaching.
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Figure 2. Theoretical and practical illustration of the preparation of paper sheets.
Figure 2. Theoretical and practical illustration of the preparation of paper sheets.
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Figure 3. Composition of untreated grass clippings, alkali-treated and bleached.
Figure 3. Composition of untreated grass clippings, alkali-treated and bleached.
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Figure 4. Optical images of samples of untreated grass clippings (a), alkali-treated samples (b), and bleached samples (c).
Figure 4. Optical images of samples of untreated grass clippings (a), alkali-treated samples (b), and bleached samples (c).
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Figure 5. SEM images and elemental analysis of untreated grass clippings, alkali-treated samples, and bleached samples.
Figure 5. SEM images and elemental analysis of untreated grass clippings, alkali-treated samples, and bleached samples.
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Figure 6. EDS analysis with elemental mapping of grass clippings after alkaline treatment and bleaching.
Figure 6. EDS analysis with elemental mapping of grass clippings after alkaline treatment and bleaching.
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Figure 7. FT-IR spectra of commercial cellulose and cellulose extracted via the alkali treatment and bleaching processes.
Figure 7. FT-IR spectra of commercial cellulose and cellulose extracted via the alkali treatment and bleaching processes.
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Figure 8. XRD patterns and crystallinity index of untreated grass clippings and the alkali-treated and bleached samples.
Figure 8. XRD patterns and crystallinity index of untreated grass clippings and the alkali-treated and bleached samples.
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Figure 9. SEM micrographs and elemental analysis of ATc/barite and Bc/barite paper.
Figure 9. SEM micrographs and elemental analysis of ATc/barite and Bc/barite paper.
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Table 1. Chemical composition of grass clippings before and after treatment.
Table 1. Chemical composition of grass clippings before and after treatment.
TreatmentCellulose (%)Hemicellulose (%)Lignin (%)
Untreated grass clippings14.0646.9524.94
Alkali-treated grass clippings47.6121.8712.68
Bleached grass clippings65.3912.707.50
Table 2. Physical and strength characteristics of handmade paper samples.
Table 2. Physical and strength characteristics of handmade paper samples.
Sampleρ, g/cm3W/Moisture Content, %X, %Thickness, mmFracture Strength Tensile Strength, kPa
Alkali-treated0.4365.638.870.4140542.25
Bleached0.5492.5137.380.53262.09
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Taurbekov, A.; Kaidar, B.; Baltabay, A.; Imash, A.; Ko, W.-B.; Ko, J.-W.; Atamanov, M.; Mansurov, Z.; Smagulova, G. Valorization of Grass Clipping Waste: A Sustainable Approach to Cellulose Extraction and Paper Manufacturing. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 6680. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156680

AMA Style

Taurbekov A, Kaidar B, Baltabay A, Imash A, Ko W-B, Ko J-W, Atamanov M, Mansurov Z, Smagulova G. Valorization of Grass Clipping Waste: A Sustainable Approach to Cellulose Extraction and Paper Manufacturing. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(15):6680. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156680

Chicago/Turabian Style

Taurbekov, Azamat, Bayan Kaidar, Akniyet Baltabay, Aigerim Imash, Weon-Bae Ko, Jeong-Won Ko, Meiram Atamanov, Zulkhair Mansurov, and Gaukhar Smagulova. 2024. "Valorization of Grass Clipping Waste: A Sustainable Approach to Cellulose Extraction and Paper Manufacturing" Applied Sciences 14, no. 15: 6680. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156680

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