How Do Location-Based AR Games Enhance Value Co-Creation Experiences at Cultural Heritage Sites? A Process Perspective Analysis

Abstract

The sustainable development of tourism in cultural heritage sites benefits from the active participation of tourists in the co-creation process. Location-based AR games show great potential in tourists’ participation in creation and positive experiences. This study explores the relationship between the stage factors of the co-creation experience and the overall co-creation. Combining the service-dominant logic and process perspective of value co-creation theory, this research proposes a conceptual framework for co-creating experiences in cultural heritage tourism using augmented reality technology through two studies. In the first phase of the study, quantitative research was conducted on 256 visitors to measure the impact of factors in the three processes of pre-co-creation experience, on-site experience, and post-co-creation experience on the overall co-creation experience. In the study’s second phase, follow-up qualitative interviews were conducted based on multiple linear regression analysis results to expand the interpretation of the relationship and importance of factors affecting the co-creation experience process. The results show that psychological engagement, awareness, knowledge, and social relations during pre-visitation help enhance the overall co-creation experience. In contrast, the overall co-creation experience is enriched by real-time storytelling, interaction, and emotional resonance in both on-site and post-experience processes. The proposal of this framework model advances the discussion of augmented reality technology and co-creation experience to the empirical level. It provides a basis for further tourism co-creation experience design practice.

1. Introduction

Technology development and the widespread integration of digital platforms have significantly altered the landscape of tourism co-creation experiences. With cutting-edge technologies such as augmented, virtual, and artificial intelligence, visitors’ participation and co-creation experiences have become more diverse and personalized. The essence of “tourism-style activation” of cultural heritage is to produce visit ability, that is, to transform static, deep culture into an experienced model that tourists can see, feel, and co-produce. Co-creative experience activities in cultural heritage sites become a vehicle for expressing thoughts and emotions and an important determinant of visitor satisfaction [1]. It is well known that when augmented reality technology is introduced into this process, both organizations and tourists gain additional collaborative opportunities to increase tourists’ active participation and experience sharing to improve the co-creation of experience [2]. Co-creation of value occurs anywhere in the service chain [3,4] and is a process in which tourists and organizations participate in the collaborative integration of resources to form experiences [5]. Heritage AR technology serves as a technological medium that accelerates and enriches the adoption of augmented reality in the visitor experience [6]. Mobile AR’s portability and mobility enable tourists to participate in every part and actively co-create experiences and value at every step of the experience [7]. In the case of AR games at cultural heritage sites, the experience in which tourists participate takes place in a virtual, augmented environment, where the constructed content can guide the tourists’ experience, including influencing their enjoyment and participation in AR and promoting co-creation behaviors in multiple environments among different tourists [8]. While the current stage of the cultural heritage site experience discussion relates to co-creation and technology, there is a research gap in the combination of technology-enabling elements of the process for the enhancement of the overall co-creation experience. The key to capturing this phenomenon of co-creation experience is, consequently, to break through the temporal and spatial constraints of the process and to articulate multiple psychological and behavioral interactions at key scenarios and points in time in a relatively dynamic way. Analyzing the role of augmented reality in valuing co-creation experiences from a process perspective can facilitate the coherence and sustainability of visitors’ co-creation experiences by distinguishing between the nature of the interactions and the sequential connections of the multiple phases, and the importance of this exploration will be consolidated in the realization of the holistic co-creation experiences offered by AR.

Co-creation of experiences occurs in a more mature stage of the experience economy, where there is the active participation of tourists and interaction between tourists and the organizing community [9,10]. Prior tourism research has explored the perspectives of tourism organizations and tourists from both theoretical and applied perspectives, respectively, to support multi-perspective explanations, and co-creation has been used to explain changes in the tourism supply chain, with implications for the way in which services, experiences and value are created. This co-creation perspective is present in the management, visitor behavior and marketing research literature and underpins concepts under the experience economy and service-led logic. Co-creation is identified at both the organizational level and in destinations as a business orientation and competitive strategy, including mechanisms, processes, and systems for tourist participation in co-creation [11]. The other perspective focuses on the formulation of the tourism experience from the perspective of the tourist by adopting a common theoretical background to explore the common dimensions of the tourist experience (co-creation of active participation and interaction as a tourist, co-creation of experiential value, and cognitive mental processes). Research has found that the concepts of experience economy and co-creation are relevant to the field of cultural heritage, where cultural heritage sites are endowed with the purposeful attributes of education, learning, and hedonism [12] and are seen as venues for co-creation and memorable experiences. The concept of co-creative experience in cultural heritage tourism, which refers to the active participation of tourists in the execution of an activity or activities, the cognitive-affective state of mind, and the interactive and technological experience with the service representatives, emphasizes three important aspects of co-creative experience in cultural heritage environments: co-production, participation, and personalization [13]. Indeed, the promotion of more valuable co-creation is often inseparable from technology, which is expected to facilitate the widespread use of enhanced human-computer interaction [14], including connectivity and modes of interaction for internal and external travel, enabling co-creation at multiple levels, with varying degrees and forms of participation. Cranmer and Ramtohul provided a comprehensive review of the importance of designing augmented reality experiences in cultural heritage and the value of co-creation [15,16]. Alexiou [17] suggests ways in which the multidimensionality of context, interaction, and feeling can be applied in the co-creation of experiential services in cultural heritage. Such research insights suggest that tourists actively hold AR in heritage environments to create positive experiences that demonstrate the value of integrating with the physical environment of the heritage. For example, Kallergis [18] proposes an AR program that combines elements such as points of interest, wayfinding, and storytelling to provide augmented information for exploring and enjoying urban monuments. Hammady’s [19] study introduces AR prototypes with gamified elements of the museum experience to transition from a standard AR experience to a more engaging experience. Visitors can shift from the role of passive spectator to active co-producer according to their desires and roles. It is significant to note that location-based AR games as hedonic technologies increase satisfaction with service access and availability at cultural heritage sites. Maximizing visitor value through technological empowerment is actively engaged and co-created with multiple stakeholders at all stages of a visitor’s journey [20]. One challenge is that the experience also reflects how individuals choose to interact with their environment at a given point in time. Many research approaches tend to focus on the needs of tourists in one of these processes and fail to provide a comprehensive understanding of how tourists and the cultural heritage site experience are affected by the different stages of the experience. We suggest that differences in the process of co-creation of experiences with augmented reality games at cultural heritage sites can help to understand the target users and consciously create suitable co-creation of positive experiences.

The motivation for this study is based on the existing literature that proposes changes in the conceptualization of consumer engagement, where a new paradigm of visitor-centeredness, empowerment, and participation has been highlighted as the main driver for the development of new technological services, which are influenced by a key enabler and technological change, developments that have attracted widespread recognition. The emerging co-creation service orientation sees the consumer as the starting point for innovation through visitor participation and co-creation through technology, driving the core elements of the co-creation process to understand the co-creation of tourism value facilitated by technology. Therefore, with the idea of visitors’ active participation in shaping the co-creation experience and contributing to the overall value as a key theme, this paper aims to address the overall co-creation experience of location-based AR games with visitors to cultural heritage sites. The value of visitor participation and co-creation is fully assessed by highlighting process elements and the differences between several processes when AR technology is in play. Drawing on the service-dominant logic of value co-creation theory, it explores the relationship between factors in the co-creation process before, during, and after the visit. The research questions are:

• How do location-based AR games interact with co-creation experiences at cultural heritage sites?
• From a process perspective, which factors in the three phases play a role in facilitating the overall co-creation experience?

Based on this, we argue that engaging in the location-based AR games process triggers a continuum of positive responses manifested in higher satisfaction with the overall co-creation experience at the cultural heritage site. Incorporating the features of augmented reality technology creates a logical chain connecting pre-behavior, on-site experience, and future intentions, ultimately contributing to the overall experience and co-creation value.

There are several key contributions: a combination of value co-creation theories, process perspectives, and empirical tests to broaden the literature on co-creation experiences in augmented reality. Firstly, we construct a conceptual model by investigating the process of tourists’ co-creation experiences at cultural heritage sites. Second, we empirically tested the role of in-process factors on the co-creation experience, a component that involves three stages of factors: the positive effect of pre-visitation (AR engagement psychology, awareness and knowledge, and social relevance), on-site experience (real-time, storytelling, and interaction), and post-visitation emotional resonance on the overall co-creation experience. Third, we provide additional explanations of key factors and discuss the potential impact of specific factors on the overall co-creation experience. An empirical study centered on the visitor experience reveals how augmented reality can be used to facilitate the co-creation of experiences within destinations and how virtual co-creation by tourism providers and consumers can be used to maximize the potential for co-creation to enhance future destination experiences.

In the next section, we examine the literature on value co-creation, service-dominant logic theory, and co-creation experiences at cultural heritage sites and implement an interpretive time-series study based on this. A conceptual model of co-creation experiences in augmented reality games is then constructed based on the findings of the two studies. The paper concludes with a discussion of the main findings and their implications, as well as analyses of the strengths and limitations of the model.

2. Literature Review and Theoretical Grounding

2.1. S-D Logic of Value Co-Creation Theory

The concept of value co-creation is deeply rooted in service-dominant logic, where service and participation are the basis for realizing value [21]. Tourism research themes based on service-dominant logic provide a broad view of services in the digital age, including service ecosystems, service platforms, and value co-creation [22]. Optimizing the quality of service with a continued emphasis on emotional and sensory stimulation is a key resource for creating memorable digital tourism experiences [23]. The service-dominant logic views co-creation as a participatory, interactive activity involving different participants, i.e., the essential feature is the interactive nature of the value creation process, which occurs through interactions and collaborations between a multitude of participants [24,25]. The combination of collaborative actions includes direct interaction between visitors and service providers (information technology) to promote value for one or both [26]. Thus, value is experientially co-created and realized with active participation before, during, and after the engagement [27]. Dynamic processes and resource integration contribute to the establishment of services, and finally, visitors experience personal well-being through collaborative activities that lead to value co-creation [28].

Tourism’s focus on co-creation is in line with the service-dominant logic, where value co-creation is a key factor in improving the competitiveness of the services of destinations and tourism organizations [29]. The service-dominant logic facilitates a culture of open innovation, where connectivity is created through the exchange of shared value through shared institutional and process arrangements and technological services. Most importantly, the role of the tourist shifts to that of co-producer of the service to be experienced so that tourists can define what the experience means to them through the co-creation process, and the value is specific to the cultural heritage context [30]. Co-creation process relationships depend on the creation of meaningful social relationships that can add sustainable social value for this purpose. Previous findings suggest that co-created value exists in the interactions between different participants and that the main shared value is hedonic [31]. Furthermore, the literature on tourism destinations suggests that co-creation has the potential to balance recreation, emotional value, and conservation at heritage sites [32]. Co-creation has been used to elucidate current changes in tourism technologies at cultural heritage sites and to analyze the overall destination experience. Several studies have examined the mechanisms, processes, and resources that engage visitors in co-creation [33]. Anton’s study divided the co-creation experience into three phases: before, during, and after the visit, concluding that the period of the visit and the aftermath shaped significant co-creation experience [34].

2.2. Visitors’ Co-Creation Experience in Cultural Heritage Tourism

The study of cultural heritage has expanded in the last decade, ranging from specific emotional experiences to emphasizing formal, economic, and tourist significance, as well as a focus on sustainable digital shared development pathways [35]. The concept of co-creation has been applied to tourism environments such as the sharing economy and tourism marketing [36], adventure tourism [37], dining experiences [38,39], cultural festivals [40], nature tourism [41], heritage environments [42], and rural tourism [43]. Co-creation is used to study the ways in which tourists interact with destinations, tourists and online augmented reality technologies, and relationships with tourists or non-human actors. Co-creation experiences at cultural heritage sites refer to the shared creativity, co-participation, and production of visitors, a personalized creative experience with active interaction with the artifacts or other participants, which influences their engagement, sense of belonging, and empathy with the content of the exhibition [44]. Co-creation experiences with augmented reality allow visitors to co-create and explore in virtual environments, enhancing the breadth and depth of co-creation experiences by overlaying virtual elements to enhance the interactive technology of the physical environment. For example, visitors can construct new experiences by giving personal meaning to them through mobile devices and social networks, allowing participation, communication, and co-creation in the online world. Location-based mobile content is now a trending technology. The strategic use of location-based game mechanics, visual and audio design, and narrative technologies can create informative ways of interacting with cultural production [45]. Augmented reality technology is at the heart of the entire trip, from the anticipation phase to the destination site to reminiscing. In the process, technology supports visitors in various activities such as AR travel previews, comparisons, decision-making, communication, and time-sharing. In addition to on-site co-created spaces, location-based AR games open a new cultural heritage virtual space continuum in the pre-visitation and post-visitation phases.

Technology becomes an important tool in the operation, construction, and strategy of organizations and is a central element in the composition of tourism products and more innovative models of managed experiences, and although digital tourism is not exempt from potential constraints, it contains stimulating environments, potential participants, including tourists or residents of local heritage communities, resources, etc., to differentiate their experiences through a more personalized approach in order to obtain a more flexible way of creating of value. ICTs are furthermore accompanying tourists anywhere, anytime through mobile devices, thus co-creating experiences in all parts of the value creation system (i.e., the whole journey) [46]. Packer and Ballantyne suggest the impact of different stages of experience on the overall experience, recognizing the principle of variability and continuity of experience [47]. Discussions based on this principle point to the boundaries of the experience, pointing to the overall experience from anticipation to memory. Despite the experiential emphasis on emotion, cognition, and the intertwining of thought and action, this experience begins with the arousal of a need for cultural heritage tourism, which leads to information searching, planning, anticipation, visiting, identification, and revisiting of the destination. In a study, Eletxigerra [48] suggests ways in which the co-creation process affects customer value, facilitating co-creation through the application of educational strategies, stimulation of community activities, and virtual tools to reinforce the memory of the tourism experience. Different steps in this process elicit different cognitive, affective, and action responses. The cognitive benefits co-created during the tourism experience are said to include new knowledge and skills, attitudes, beliefs, and visions, along with the acquisition of positive emotions. When tourists interact with services, other tourists, technology, and augmented reality games at different steps, all steps contribute to the overall experience.

Several studies have confirmed the positive impact of smart technologies on the co-creation of tourism experiences [49]. The importance of technology-led forms of service for the value of tourists in co-creation processes and behaviors has become critical in tourism research [50]. Among these, mobile technologies offer unique opportunities for co-creation and smart service ecosystems, including augmented reality, gaming, social media, artificial intelligence, and self-service technologies. Research by Morosan and Defranco [51] highlights the importance of interactive technologies for the co-creation of value. Such service technologies create an interaction field for visitors, who can use mobile location-augmented reality games to enhance the experience, including receiving updates, synchronizing services, and creating interactions for the gaming experience to support overall value creation for visitors. Cheung [52] and Chen [53], among others, have empirically investigated the factors influencing user behavior (co-creation and participant’s value of use) in virtual tourism communities, highlighting the importance of online technological co-innovation and generative content for tourists’ attractiveness. In this regard, the emergence of smart environments has redefined the way tourists experience them, using a value co-creation lens to examine key technological advances and reflect on how tourists can utilize technology and engage in co-creation to deliver innovative services that impact the experience ecosystem [54].

As the experience economy develops, tourists are more focused on their creativity and self-actualization, actively participating according to their desires (culture, knowledge, values, creativity, etc.) and changing their role from passive spectators to active co-creators [55]. The development of augmented reality technology provides additional ways to build co-creative experiential environments to influence tourists’ decisions about destinations. However, the literature points to the fact that tourists are actively looking for a channel through which they can be heard or connected to the destination and that they need to be involved in the creation process, thus generating a link between augmented reality games and co-creation [56]. Despite the widespread interest the concept of value co-creation has attracted in the tourism industry, few empirical studies have explored the complexity of the experience of value co-creation processes in augmented reality. What process factors motivate tourists to use this technology to seek and enhance co-creation experiences? Whilst previous research perspectives have suggested the need to understand how augmented reality technology empowers tourism to influence co-creation experiences to stimulate curiosity and high levels of engagement amongst tourists, these studies have neglected to elucidate practical considerations of how this process of co-creation occurs. Research efforts to date have focused on the examination of specific technologies within the tourism experience, and there is a lack of exploring the experience through co-creation and technology integration. There is therefore a need to address the processes of participation and co-creation of experiences to activate and sustain the value of cultural heritage sites. A new framework for technology-enabled co-creation of the full range of cultural heritage tourism experiences is extended through the three elements of cultural heritage tourism, experiential co-creation and location-based augmented reality gaming technology.

3. Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses

3.1. Pre-Visitation Involvement with the Co-Creation of Experience

Anticipatory experience is defined as an experience of expected participation or interaction, and establishing a pre-communicative dialogue with visitors is a precondition for the co-creation of experience, which forms the cognitive and affective components of the experience from a co-creation perspective [57]. Visitor pre-participation is not a new concept, but AR’s psychological involvement in pre-participation behaviors ensures positive co-creation of experiential tourism outcomes. Previous studies to understand end-user behaviors towards augmented technologies through the psychology of AR engagement have shown positive results [58]. The positive psychology of tourists is particularly important in the co-creation of tourism experiences, where tourists can utilize their resources to intervene directly to meet tourists’ expectations.

The co-creation of the experience starts before the interaction and in the case of cultural heritage sites, visitors can manipulate to design the experience they will have, especially the visit route planning and prior knowledge. The combination of knowledge, interests, and skills possessed by the visitors influences the meaning they make of the co-creation of the experiential experience.

In another study, it was discussed how interpersonal interactions can enhance the overall experience through co-creation and it was recognized that tourists influence the process of experience co-creation by actively integrating multiple resources. Destination technology plays a fundamental role in service co-creation through effective sharing processes and is an important prerequisite for co-creation. Attitudes toward tourism experiences shared through technology expand emotional connections in time and space [59].

H1a: 

AR psychological engagement has a positive effect on the overall co-creation experience.

H1b: 

Awareness and knowledge have a positive effect on the overall co-creation experience.

H1c: 

Social relevance has a positive effect on the overall co-creation experience.

3.2. On-Site Co-Creation of Experience

Location-based AR games are mainly used to encourage more on-site engagement and enhance the visitor’s on-site experience at a destination in a more interesting and informative way. Real-time co-creation and instant services are mainly referred to during the traveling period phase [60]. Mobile technologies can lead to real-time interaction channels that co-create value with visitors and develop genuine engagement [61,62]. Location-based triggers provide highly relevant instantaneous dynamics and real-time inputs, bringing contextualized personalization. In Costa [63] and Buhalis [64] studies, it was shown that the combination of tourists’ personal preferences and external factors such as cultural heritage buildings and artifacts provide the contextual information needed for location-based augmented reality games to co-create real-time value, opening up a new special form that complements the face-to-face experience.

Storytelling has been recognized as a key component of tourism experience design [65]. Digital technologies for tourism in cultural heritage destinations are co-creative tools for engaging tourists to deliver memorable experiences through storytelling that facilitates enhanced visitor engagement, entertains, and provokes emotional interactions. Previous research explains storytelling and creation in heritage environments [66]. However, to meet the needs of experiential tourists and enhance the competitiveness of cultural heritage sites, storytelling in location-based AR games emphasizes how tourists co-create and negotiate the meanings of the past as well as the ways in which cultural narratives and values are connected. Often, location-based pathways are navigated with specific types of cultural and historical stories, such as characters, narrators, and co-created storylines that tend to activate the imagination by connecting with visitors’ experiences and emotions [67]. The result is a co-created experience that effectively engages visitors in a personally meaningful creative and storytelling experience in a heritage augmented reality environment.

Interaction refers to the creation of intelligent environments responsive to human presence at cultural heritage sites, dynamically adapting and exploring tangible and intangible heritage through mobile technology access pathways. Location-based AR games are described as a spatially engaging live experience that can inspire visitors to explore, play, and learn [68]. For example, visitors can choose a semi-customized path through a heritage conservation space based on their interests [69]. By providing task-related content, unique experiences can allow visitors to engage and play a role in creating interactions, emphasizing the importance of co-creation in which visitors engage in self-development as well as reflexive visitor interactions. Some of the interactions occurred with other tourists, locals, or staff on site, and some were with artifacts in the augmented reality space. Regardless of the type, these are all part of the co-creation of the experience. Such interactions bring subjectivities face to face with other subjectivities, creating a common space where emotions, values, and choices converge, emphasizing the social properties of interactions in co-creation tourism experiences [70,71].

Location-based AR games expand the ways in which cultural heritage sites can be visited, for example, by using simulations and systems to enable interactive or immersive experiences. By giving visitors the freedom to choose a historical period through immersive mechanics, the historical environment set up by the game is accurately revealed, immersing the visitor in a more realistic environment [72,73]. Lecce AR does so by including the AR information as a stream of video in this museum program to put an immersive experience into it [74]. Therefore, considering that co-creation and service design processes require live engagement with visitors and that elements such as storytelling, interaction, real-time, and immersion are integrated to shape the ‘predictors’ of the overall co-creation experience, examining the link between gamification and co-creation can lead to a better understanding of how co-creation practices can be enhanced. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis can be formulated:

H2a: 

Real-time has a positive effect on the overall co-creation experience.

H2b: 

Storytelling has a positive impact on the overall co-creation experience.

H2c: 

Interaction has a positive impact on the overall co-creation experience.

H2d: 

Immersion has a positive impact on the overall co-creation experience.

3.3. Co-Creation Experience Post Visits

In the post-visitation phase, technology will help tourists recall previous travel experiences. Tourists reinforce the experience and generate content in online cultural heritage site media communities to demonstrate their added value. Part of the literature focuses importantly on tourists’ generated content driven by sharing their experiences. Case studies have shown that tourists use Location-based AR games to co-design experiences, create iconic moments, and design digital souvenirs, enhancing the resonance points and attention of participants. Participants gained a sense of collaboration and emotional belonging to the cultural heritage site [75]. Augmented reality gaming provides tourists with post-visitation long-term engagement, allowing participants to invest more time and effort in service production and service delivery [76]. The post-visitation phase is therefore crucial for the experiences that destinations interact with previous visitors to create, where tourists can facilitate affect generation and gather ideas and inspiration for future tours. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis can be formulated:

H3a: 

Generative memory has a positive effect on the overall co-creation experience.

H3b: 

Emotional resonance has a positive effect on the overall co-creation experience.

3.4. The Conceptual Model

The conceptual model shown in Figure 1 represents nine research hypotheses. Based on the previous discussion, a novel and comprehensive concept based on the process perspective of co-creation of destination experiences with augmented reality is proposed. The main contributions of the model are (a) to extend the augmented reality creation space for co-creation experiences in cultural heritage destinations (pre-visitation, on-site visitation, post-visitation) and (b) to differentiate the impact of the different phases of co-creation on facilitating the overall co-creation experience. The conceptual model suggests that the Location-based AR games co-creation experience uses the concept of the visitor as the center of value creation to guide visitor behavior and influence the overall value creation relationship.

4. Methodology

4.1. Sample and Data Collection

The main phase of data collection was realized through the administration of a questionnaire to visitors who had experienced location-based AR games at cultural heritage sites (i.e., individuals who had visited multiple location-based AR games during the data collection period). The survey was conducted in April and May 2024, and an online questionnaire was generated on the Questionnaire Star platform with a unique web link. To ensure qualified survey data was collected, respondents were asked to confirm the number of times they had used location-based AR games at their cultural heritage sites, which was a screening question. All respondents confirmed that they had previous experience with the game and that 38.3% of users had more than 10 experiences. These procedures resulted in a total of 310 questionnaires, some of which showed a high degree of consistency in the selection of questions as well as a short completion time, and such questionnaires were excluded. Finally, 256 questionnaires (82.5%) were retained for valid empirical analysis.

Table 1. The profile of the respondents (N = 256).

Variables		N (%)
Gender	Male	129 (50.4)
	Female	127 (49.6)
Age	≤18	16 (6.3)
	18~25	96 (37.5)
	26~32	79 (30.9)
	33~40	47 (18.4)
	≥41	18 (7)
Education	High school	33 (12.9)
	Academy	84 (32.8)
	Undergraduate	121 (47.3)
	Graduate	18 (7)
Monthly Income (RMB)	≤2000	39 (15.2)
	2001–5000	78 (30.5)
	50,001–10,000	118 (46.1)
	≥10,001	21 (8.2)
Number of cultural heritage sites co-creation experiences between 2022 and 2024	1 time	26 (10.2)
	2–5 times	41 (16)
	6–10 times	91 (35.5)
	Over 10 times	98 (38.3)

illustrates the demographic information of the respondents.

This study complied with the recommendations of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Kookmin University, Korea. Ethics number: KMU-202312-HR-386.

4.2. Measure

The basis of the questionnaire design was the literature on tourism experience research. To test the research framework, the variable questions in our questionnaire were developed from scales used in previous studies (see Table 2). The scale was modified to suit the nature of the study, and a 5-point Likert scale was used for measurement. The first part of the questionnaire consisted of questions about the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents (gender, age, level of education, income). The second section asked respondents to provide information about their visits, such as the number of visits and the sites visited for cultural heritage tourism activities. The third part consisted of structural measures. These were measured using problem statements adapted from academic research related to the topic. The first version of the questionnaire was presented to experts in the field, who suggested improvements in the adaptation and writing formulation of certain items. As most of the measurement scales were adopted and slightly modified from the literature, it was deemed necessary to pre-test the scales to validate the items in the scales to ensure content validity.

The three variables in the pre-experience dimension of the scale were adapted based on the work of [77], and the items measuring the interaction variables in the live experience dimension were adapted from several scales, with the immersion variable being measured using the scale proposed by Deng [78]. The Generative Memory and Emotional Resonance variables were adapted using the assessment items proposed by Anton [34]. Also, the authors incorporated two assessment items involving the measurement of real-time and storytelling variables of the live experience, as well as items for the assessment of the overall co-creation experience. The final version of the questionnaire design was developed and administered in English and Chinese.

Table 2. Questionnaire Scales and Factor Loadings.

Constructs	Measured Item	Factor Loading	Sources
Pre-visitation
AR psychological engagement α = 0.857	Q7 I will plan tours with AR gaming experiences. Q8 I explore AR gaming experiences before my trips. Q9 I enjoy visiting cultural heritage sites that offer AR gaming experiences.	0.854 0.806 0.876	[77,79]
Awareness and knowledge α = 0.894	Q10 I have extensive experience with AR gaming. Q11 I can skillfully use AR games at cultural heritage sites. Q12 I can actively participate in every phase of AR gaming experiences. Q13 My previous AR gaming experiences have given me a good understanding of history and culture.	0.879 0.846 0.898 0.794	[34,77]
Social Relevance α = 0.922	Q14 I recommend others to participate in AR gaming experiences. Q15 I actively create social media content and participate in promoting the experience. Q16 I can quickly access information about AR gaming experiences at sites. Q17 I explore destinations by accessing AR gaming experience information on sharing platforms.	0.920 0.883 0.925 0.821	[77]
On-site visitation
Real-time α = 0.920	Q18 I can connect with cultural artifacts in real time. Q19 The content is continuously updated. Q20 I experience a sense of naturalness and realism in real-time through AR game interactions. Q21 I can quickly access AR gaming applications.	0.900 0.895 0.918 0.835	[16]
Storytelling α=0.870	Q22 The stories of cultural heritage sites are very engaging. Q23 The game’s storyline deepens my understanding of historical and cultural contexts. Q24 The stories in the game assist me in understanding people from the past. Q25 AR gaming experiences with a storyline make it more interesting for me.	0.819 0.845 0.822 0.815	[80]
Interaction α = 0.897	Q26 The information shared in the game is of good quality. Q27 I actively participate in destination AR gaming activities through interaction. Q28 The interactive settings in the game enable me to collaborate effectively with other visitors. Q29 Interacting with other visitors enhances my experience during the game.	0.898 0.838 0.904 0.804	[81,82]
Immersive α = 0.889	Q30 I am focused on the destination’s AR game. Q31 Time seems to pass quickly during my AR gaming experience. Q32 I became completely immersed in the AR game. Q33 I am addicted to this AR game.	0.870 0.897 0.916 0.751	[78]
Post visitation
Generate memories α = 0.844	Q34 The AR game experience has created memorable impressions for me. Q35 It reminds me of an unforgettable memory from the past. Q36 I will remember what happens in the AR gaming experience.	0.788 0.818 0.815	[34]
Emotional Resonance α = 0.894	Q37 I have developed an emotional connection to the cultural heritage site. Q38 I draw inspiration from the cultural heritage site. Q39 I feel a strong sense of belonging to this cultural heritage site. Q40 This AR game experience gives me a feeling of happiness.	0.826 0.821 0.883 0.820	[9,79]
Overall co-creation experience α = 0.754	Q41 I am satisfied with interacting with other visitors through AR games. Q42 I consider the overall experience with AR games to be unforgettable. Q43 I am fully engaged from start to finish in the AR gaming experience.	0.719 0.731 0.760	[5]

Table 2. Questionnaire Scales and Factor Loadings.

Constructs	Measured Item	Factor Loading	Sources
Pre-visitation
AR psychological engagement α = 0.857	Q7 I will plan tours with AR gaming experiences. Q8 I explore AR gaming experiences before my trips. Q9 I enjoy visiting cultural heritage sites that offer AR gaming experiences.	0.854 0.806 0.876	[77,79]
Awareness and knowledge α = 0.894	Q10 I have extensive experience with AR gaming. Q11 I can skillfully use AR games at cultural heritage sites. Q12 I can actively participate in every phase of AR gaming experiences. Q13 My previous AR gaming experiences have given me a good understanding of history and culture.	0.879 0.846 0.898 0.794	[34,77]
Social Relevance α = 0.922	Q14 I recommend others to participate in AR gaming experiences. Q15 I actively create social media content and participate in promoting the experience. Q16 I can quickly access information about AR gaming experiences at sites. Q17 I explore destinations by accessing AR gaming experience information on sharing platforms.	0.920 0.883 0.925 0.821	[77]
On-site visitation
Real-time α = 0.920	Q18 I can connect with cultural artifacts in real time. Q19 The content is continuously updated. Q20 I experience a sense of naturalness and realism in real-time through AR game interactions. Q21 I can quickly access AR gaming applications.	0.900 0.895 0.918 0.835	[16]
Storytelling α=0.870	Q22 The stories of cultural heritage sites are very engaging. Q23 The game’s storyline deepens my understanding of historical and cultural contexts. Q24 The stories in the game assist me in understanding people from the past. Q25 AR gaming experiences with a storyline make it more interesting for me.	0.819 0.845 0.822 0.815	[80]
Interaction α = 0.897	Q26 The information shared in the game is of good quality. Q27 I actively participate in destination AR gaming activities through interaction. Q28 The interactive settings in the game enable me to collaborate effectively with other visitors. Q29 Interacting with other visitors enhances my experience during the game.	0.898 0.838 0.904 0.804	[81,82]
Immersive α = 0.889	Q30 I am focused on the destination’s AR game. Q31 Time seems to pass quickly during my AR gaming experience. Q32 I became completely immersed in the AR game. Q33 I am addicted to this AR game.	0.870 0.897 0.916 0.751	[78]
Post visitation
Generate memories α = 0.844	Q34 The AR game experience has created memorable impressions for me. Q35 It reminds me of an unforgettable memory from the past. Q36 I will remember what happens in the AR gaming experience.	0.788 0.818 0.815	[34]
Emotional Resonance α = 0.894	Q37 I have developed an emotional connection to the cultural heritage site. Q38 I draw inspiration from the cultural heritage site. Q39 I feel a strong sense of belonging to this cultural heritage site. Q40 This AR game experience gives me a feeling of happiness.	0.826 0.821 0.883 0.820	[9,79]
Overall co-creation experience α = 0.754	Q41 I am satisfied with interacting with other visitors through AR games. Q42 I consider the overall experience with AR games to be unforgettable. Q43 I am fully engaged from start to finish in the AR gaming experience.	0.719 0.731 0.760	[5]

5. Data Analysis and Result

5.1. Reliability and Validity

To test the consistency of the hypotheses, we utilized SPSS 29 for data analysis. The data analysis consisted of two steps. First, as the variable questions in the questionnaire come from different literature and scales, we used exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and Cronbach’s alpha calculation to complete the reliability and validity test of the questionnaire data. The next step is to calculate the comprehensive reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and KMO. In the end, multiple linear regression was utilized to assess the connection between factors in each stage and the overall co-creation experience.

We tested that the values of each variable are greater than the universal level of 0.60, which indicates that the questionnaire has a certain degree of credibility. The next step was to use SPSS’s exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with varimax rotation to determine which factor had the highest load in each item, confirming that all variables in Table 2 are independent. The results showed that the questions in the dependent and independent variables in the questionnaire had the highest loadings. The detailed factor composites and Cronbach coefficients are shown in

Table 3. Assessment of the construct measurement.

	Mean (SD)	KMO	AVE	CR
AR psychological engagement	3.53 (0.96)	0.721	0.704	0.877
Awareness and knowledge	3.34 (0.98)	0.824	0.701	0.902
Social Relevance	3.58 (1.21)	0.844	0.757	0.925
Real-time	3.49 (1.05)	0.845	0.751	0.923
Storytelling	3.59 (0.86)	0.815	0.712	0.907
Interaction	3.83 (0.93)	0.804	0.715	0.908
Immersive	3.64 (0.96)	0.828	0.698	0.901
Generate memories	3.55 (1.16)	0.730	0.611	0.825
Emotional resonance	3.52 (1.16)	0.843	0.636	0.875
Overall co-creation experience	3.86 (0.70)	0.710	0.725	0.887

. The CR, AVE, and KMO values are greater than 0.70, 0.50, and 0.70, respectively, which proves the internal consistency and validity of the questionnaire. The specific data are shown in Table 3.

5.2. Data Analysis

To measure the stability of the measurements and model fit, we assessed the fit of multiple linear regression using AMOSv26.0.

Table 4. Model fitness.

	Desired Values
CMIN/DF	<3.0	1.536
CFI	>0.90	0.950
TLI	>0.90	0.944
IFI	>0.90	0.950
RMSEA	<0.050	0.046
NFI	>0.80	0.870
RFI	>0.80	0.854
R2	>0.30	0.379

summarizes the empirical results obtained in the analysis and shows the stability of the performed assessment. The goodness-of-fit values indicate an adequate fit (CMIN/DF = 1.536, IFI = 0.950, TLI = 0.944, CFI = 0.950, RMSEA = 0.046). Thus, the combined results of the analyses indicate that the model is a good fit.

5.3. Result

5.3.1. Hypothesis Test

Table 5. Regression analysis results.

IVs	β	SE	t	P	VIF
Pre-Visitation
AR psychological Engagement	0.166	0.041	2.994	0.003 **	1.219
Awareness and Knowledge	0.230	0.038	4.302	<0.001 ***	1.136
Social Relevance	0.150	0.037	2.812	0.005 **	1.125
On-site Visitation
Real-time	0.254	0.035	4.897	<0.001 ***	1.063
Storytelling	0.175	0.045	3.190	0.002 **	1.196
Interaction	0.126	0.040	2.380	0.018 *	1.111
Immersion	−0.074	0.039	−1.371	0.172	1.140
Post Visitation
Generate Memories	−0.089	0.037	−1.461	0.145	1.480
Emotional Resonance	0.160	0.037	2.634	0.009 **	1.460

Note: p < 0.001 ***, p < 0.01 **, p < 0.05 *.

illustrates the results of the multiple linear regression analyses and provides insight into the relationship between the stage factors and the overall co-creation experience. The VIF values of the factors in each stage are less than 5, indicating that there is no multicollinearity in the regression model. The factors in each stage have a causal relationship with the co-creation experience of the Location-based AR games, which affects the overall co-creation experience to varying degrees. Before the co-creation experience, we propose that there are positive and meaningful relationships between AR Participation Psychology (β = 0.166, p < 0.003), Awareness and Knowledge (β = 0.230, p < 0.001), and Social Relevance (β = 0.150, p < 0.005) and the overall co-creation experience, with Awareness and Knowledge showing a strong causal relationship.

On-site visitation of Real-Time (β = 0.254, p < 0.001), Storytelling (β = 0.175, p < 0.002), and Interaction (β = 0.126, p < 0.018) had a positive impact on the overall co-creative experience and were accepted based on quantitative results. However, we also found that Immersion (β = −0.074, p < 0.172) in this dimension did not have any significant effect, resulting in this hypothesis not being valid.

The hypothesis for the post-visitation dimension was partially confirmed, where Emotional Resonance (β = 0.160, p < 0.009) had a significant effect on the overall co-creation experience. However, we found that Generate Memories (β = −0.089, p < 0.145) did not hold concerning it.

5.3.2. Interpretative Analysis of Quantitative Data

This study further explains and adds to the discussion of the co-creation experience using the qualitative interview method. An interview schedule was developed based on the significant findings of the quantitative study, and the interview topics corresponded to the non-significant results of the multiple linear regression in the quantitative study. The fact that immersion and generative memory become less important in the co-creation experience of Location-based AR games prompts us to rethink the current potential causes influencing tourists’ co-creation with augmented reality technologies. Specifically, respondents(N=12) were asked to reminisce and reflect as tourists and to answer open-ended questions such as, “Based on your feelings, do you think the immersion of the location-based AR games influenced your behavior while co-creating the experience? Why or why not?” and “Did it give you any memory points after the trip?” To avoid leading the respondents on, we probed further: “Can you explain more?”.

• On-site Visitation—Immersion

One participant, A3, said, “It was different from the virtual reality I had experienced before, in that both virtual and real objects interacted in the AR game and did not completely replace reality. I also discovered many tangible and intangible elements of the cultural attractions.” Although it is assumed that the immersive experience is the same in both the game and the environment, how immersion is created may be strongly influenced by the social context of the game and the in-game activities that the player must participate in. For example, participant A5 explained, “I have to look for new information and remind my friends of my location tasks.” “I think it’s fun to go and play AR games with my friends, and we talk about artifacts” (Participant A12). Increasing immersion in the game reduces visitors’ ability to reintegrate into the “real world”, and as a result, visitors are more likely to perceive the destination through the AR artifact game elements and the involvement of others rather than relying solely on their own sensory experiences(see

Table 6. Interview Excerpts 1.

Interview Excerpts: Immersion
Interview excerpts
Negative State	-We needed to observe both the clues and the virtual cues on the AR device, which led to a bias in the transfer of information between us. (A6) -On one occasion, we needed to look for clues in different areas of the site; the area I oversaw found the clues very quickly, while the tasks of other members took longer due to the complexity of the area, which led to a disruption in the overall pace. (A5) -We disagreed on our understanding of the steps to solve a complex puzzle and argued for a long time before it was solved. (A2)
Positive State	-I don’t know much about the history of cultural heritage sites, which makes the games... The plot and elements were not that appealing to me. But I still get a kick out of interacting with other visitors and solving puzzles together. (A1) -I found it quite fun. At first, I did not know what to do, but then I was able to learn some skills and feel the history of the cultural heritage. (A8)

).

We found that the key factors for visitors to co-create experiences using location-based AR games were timely feedback and social cooperation. For example, some visitors reported that even though the game was not very immersive, they could obtain satisfaction from solving problems and sharing experiences. At the same time, the immediate feedback interactions made them feel motivated and enhanced their sense of participation and collaboration in co-creation. From this, we further argue that immersion is not a core effect of solving the co-creation experience of Location-based AR games.

• Post Visitation—Generate Memories

In qualitative interviews with visitors to cultural heritage sites, we found that although generative memory is an important post-visitation experiential factor, its impact on the overall co-creation experience may not be as significant as expected. As participants recalled and described their experiences at the site, Participant A2 explained, “I turned my attention to the game tasks, and the experience was particularly good. But some of the memories were less impressive.” “The story was great, but the elements and characters were a bit bland” (A9). From this, we found that although storytelling can increase memory points, memory generation is limited by the fact that memory generation after skimming is weak due to a lack of real-life relevance. However, some participants noted that when they recalled and shared the experience with other peers, the continued interaction reinforced that it would strengthen the memory of the content, thus perpetuating the participants’ interest (see

Table 7. Interview Excerpts 2.

Interview Excerpts: Generate Memories
Interview excerpts
Negative State	-This did come as a bit of a surprise. The process of memory generation after the excursion is more passive and not as direct and interesting as in-game interactions. (A7) -Although the storyline adds to the memory points, the elements and characters are a bit bland, and the memories may not be as strong. (A9) -I could not absorb and process it all, which contributed to it not being as memorable for me. (A6) -The subsequent way of interacting with me was rather one-dimensional, and my memory was not reinforced. (A4)
Positive State	-I would get caught up in some element of serendipity or adversity, and although I don’t remember it well, it felt enjoyable at the moment. (A10) -My memory is a little fuzzy, but interactions with friends bring back memories of traveling with them at the time. (A1)

).

The above extracts include potential reasons for tourists’ post-trip co-creation behaviors, and while memory generation does not have a significant positive impact on the overall co-creation experience, the creation of more significant memories through enhanced post-trip interactions, the provision of contextualized tasks and personalized feedback ultimately improves the quality and value of the overall co-creation experience.

5.4. Model Development

Based on the results of Study phase 1 and Study phase 2, a conceptual model of visitor co-creation experience design for augmented reality was finally constructed. The model includes seven factors that contribute to the co-creation experience in three stages. Combining the empirical findings with insights from service-led co-creation value theory, this study demonstrates the sequential relationship between the structures and aims to expand our understanding of co-creation experiences between tourists and augmented reality technologies (see Figure 2).

6. Discussion and Conclusions

The current research framework provides valuable insights into the application of augmented reality as an innovative enabling technology. Responses in the pre-visitation, on-site, and post-visitation phases are necessary for measuring and interpreting tourism experiences. In addition, capturing the components of the experience delivers superior results for designing tourism experiences.AR Engagement Psychology, Awareness and Knowledge, and Social Relevance were shown to be predictors of pre-travel influencing the overall co-creation experience, with Awareness and Knowledge having the greatest impact on the overall co-creation experience, a result that is consistent with previous research [83,84], further confirming that tourists’ extrinsic behaviors can be driven and motivated by activating personal knowledge of cultural heritage sites. The active engagement mentality of AR allows participants to take responsibility for each step as a way of fulfilling tourists’ expectations of participation, thus facilitating a potential co-creation experience. This finding highlights the critical role of the AR engagement mentality for tourists in the co-creation of experiences before visitation, which is also emphasized by the studies of Ahmad [85] and Otusu [86] and reflects the similarity of the decision to the individual in terms of underlying goals and values. The social relevance emphasizes the effective sharing process based on the role of technology in expanding the space and time of the experience and giving the visitor a role as co-creator, providing an emotional connection. This hypothesis supports the view of [87]. Thus, in the current framework, the pre-use enabled by augmented reality gaming helps visitors to reach the intended enjoyment of the destination and effectively connect with cultural heritage destinations and other visitors to make better future co-creation experience decisions.

As for the co-creation of the on-site experience, real-time feedback during the visit facilitated the co-creation of the experience. This finding involves a high level of visitor attention to immediate dialogue and task feedback, which, on its own, demonstrates that the presence and contribution of visitors are an important aspect of the co-creation experience. Location augmented reality games provide multiple narrative perspectives, presenting different curated artifacts or narratives in line with visitors’ collaborative preferences, thus facilitating their participation in the experience. This is following Basaraba [88] and Bonacini [89]. At the same time, it is once again confirmed that interaction and co-creation are interdependent, where interaction means not simply completing interactions but encouraging collaborative design and strategy with other participants through the task elements of location-based games, including the game plot. Experiential co-creation occurs when interaction and collaboration with other multiplayer people go hand in hand [90]. In the present study, we also found that post-travel emotional resonance significantly influenced the overall co-creation experience and that emotional resonance broadened tourists’ sense of co-creation, leading to subsequent sustained well-being [91].

6.1. Theoretical Contributions

This study makes several key theoretical contributions. Firstly, by proposing a co-creation experience model for cultural heritage tourism through service-dominant logic and value co-creation theory, this study contributes empirical research to the literature on experience co-creation and tourists’ behaviors under augmented reality technology, which, on the one hand, expands the general role of management institutions and technology under service-dominant logic, defining tourism services empowered by augmented reality technology as a strategic tool to positively enhance the tourism experience. On the other hand, as a methodological innovation, the three phases of tourism are linked together to synthesize and analyze the impact of location-based AR games on the overall co-creation experience. Defining the structure, discussion, and measurement of participation under augmented technology, the phases of tourist participation effectively influence the productivity of the destination and, ultimately, the quality and tourist satisfaction. In addition, the development potential of location-based AR games for shared value between cultural heritage sites and tourists is demonstrated. This time, the process of co-creation of experiences combined with augmented reality technology was incorporated into a single conceptual model, and the resulting relationships confirmed the role of stage factors in creating shared experiences. The output of this structured process emphasizes visitors’ ownership of what can be felt and co-produced, leading to a better understanding of the relationship between people and different parts of the cultural heritage environmental system. This is the result of the understanding process implicit in the methodology, which promotes understanding of people and cultural heritage and better communication between participants, advancing the social publicization of cultural heritage.

This study also reveals the positioning of virtual storytelling to participatory cultural heritage visitors to create diverse participatory narrative experiences. A heritage co-creation experience that actively shapes identity and belonging and adapts to narratives and heritage spaces of contemporary relevance. The digital forms of temporal practices generated in this way themselves reconfigure the spatial relations of social engagement, reinforcing the future direction of digital narratives, virtual experiences, and marketing strategies for cultural heritage tourism. At the same time, issues of sustainability and initiatives to maintain a genuine two-way, participatory relationship between the public and cultural heritage institutions are highlighted, opening heritage to new groups in a co-creative way, achieving a balance in the weight of participatory power, and richer ways of engaging with history and creating truly participatory experiences.

6.2. Practical Contributions

This study provides a roadmap for designing and managing successful tourism co-creation experiences. The findings and discussion can inform destination managers of the important role of co-creation under augmented technology. Location-based AR games are found across all stages of travel, service encounters, and touchpoints in virtual spaces between physical destinations and multiple participants. While staged experiences can deliver high value to visitors, technology-enabled co-creation can deliver higher use and experiential value to visitors and create the opportunity to create meaningful interconnections between visitors and the cultural heritage experience environment. In the pre-tourism phase, this study found that the pre-previews and social platforms provided by AR significantly stimulated visitors’ willingness to travel to the destination. Cultural heritage site management and AR designers can further apply destination AR technology, co-creation routes, and key tasks to pre-tour planning to increase active participation and co-creation among potential visitors. Meanwhile, AR-assisted gaming campaigns can help to innovate the destination image and thus attract more visitors. It is important to note that through the investigation of participant behavior during the field experience, the co-creation experience from the location-based AR games reduced immersion when real-time feedback and ways of interacting with others were more important. However, this effect could be improved by visitors choosing to engage with each other in a game-consistent manner, for example, by using only language and behaviors appropriate to the character they are playing in character selection. Therefore, AR designers should conduct appropriate story character or exclusive character cooperation task design. Effectively direct visitors’ visual attention to the planned scenarios and tasks to avoid negatively influencing the absence of AR games to explore the mission scenarios.

The findings of this study demonstrate the relevance of value co-creation in the development of destinations, empirically validating the understanding of the urgent need for technology-enhanced co-creation of experiences in the context of cultural heritage tourism, thereby encouraging destinations and experience designers to develop destination game tour strategies to enhance local distinctiveness. This research has many implications for the creation and enhancement of cultural heritage tourism experiences through valuable insights into the three phases of pre-visitation, on-site visitation, and post-visitation. By providing a critical practical understanding of how experience leaders and destination organizers can achieve a technology-enhanced destination level, it is important to develop tourism marketing plans that reflect a culture of co-creation of experiences, while tourists can be encouraged to engage with the experience based on managing and moderating their process dimensions to build lasting relationships. For tourism management implications, this study provides opportunities and directions on how location-based augmented reality games can be utilized for cultural heritage environments, and it becomes crucial to implement appropriate augmented reality technology strategies to gain co-creation experiences and collaboration from tourists. Heritage organizations and AR designers supplemented the design experience with AR gaming experience elements, technical route design, and level selection for cultural heritage scenarios, providing space for visitors to input their manipulation and co-creation of resources and facilitating the co-creation of value and sustainable innovation of technical service systems at cultural heritage sites. This new management paradigm emphasizes the necessary shift from service provision to experience creation and that providing visitors with a satisfying co-creation experience is the best way to provide a differentiated image for the tourism market and enhance brand reputation. In addition, the results of this study provide a resource for policy makers to understand the priority criteria that contribute to the implementation of co-creation experiential tourism at cultural heritage sites-facilitating the holistic co-creation of cultural heritage values, i.e., tourists contributing to the process of brand co-creation for cultural heritage tourism in a dynamic and vividly situated Augmented Reality gaming system. Ultimately, this will help to accelerate the realization of digital cultural heritage building and new forms of value attainment.

6.3. Limitations and Further Research

There are several limitations to this study. This study focussed on the role of the visitor as a co-creator of the cultural heritage site and did not focus much on the stakeholders as this may involve other levels of co-participants. This includes how technology providers can ensure the sustainable application and innovation of the technology and how heritage site planners can further design interactive content and tour routes. Future research will further identify and consider the role of other stakeholders in the co-creation of experiences in augmented reality technologies through multi-level analyses and qualitative studies of stakeholders to understand their relationships. Secondly, the empirical analyses in this study focused on specific cultural heritage sites, which is a limitation to fully reflect the effects of application in different cultural contexts and social environments; after all, the cultural heritage created by tourists interacting with their cultures in different destinations varies greatly and can add value to the AR tourism experience in digital environments. Future research will conduct a comparative study of cases at different national and international levels to analyze the differences and commonalities in their co-creation experiences. Other mediating variables that may influence the readiness of tourism organizations for strategic value co-creation, such as the scope of knowledge sharing or cultural acceptance, will be considered in order to reveal the effect of factors such as cultural context and type of tourists on the co-creation of Augmented Reality in cultural heritage sites.

This study focuses on process factors that favor the co-creation of cultural heritage tourism experiences. However, we found that the data collection period at this stage after traveling needs to be further extended and that the data collected in a short period mainly reflected the initial reactions of visitors. Future research could break through the time constraints and establish a research mechanism for long-term tracking studies, staged evaluations, and follow-up interactions and feedback to provide more comprehensive findings that reveal the impact of location-based AR games on long-term memory and perceptions of cultural heritage sites. As technology increasingly allows tourists to access information about destinations anytime, anywhere, and the discoverability of education and knowledge has become another co-driver between the fields of technology and cultural heritage, future new augmented reality game narratives developed for cultural heritage sites could also have a more educational focus, with communication goals aimed at achieving specific civic education activities for the public and co-creation of cultural and educational values.