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Article

Effects of Exercise and Pomegranate–Black Carrot Juice Interventions on Mineral Metabolism and Fatty Acids

by
Kenan Bozbay
1,
Vedat Çinar
2,
Taner Akbulut
2,
Isa Aydemir
3,
Yavuz Yasul
4,
Kursat Yusuf Aytac
5,
Ahmet Ozkaya
6,
Luca Russo
7,*,
Andrea Fusco
8,† and
Gian Mario Migliaccio
9,†
1
Institute of Health Sciences, Faculty Sport Science, Firat University, Elazig 23119, Turkey
2
Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty Sport Science, Firat University, Elazig 23119, Turkey
3
Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Education, Hakkari University, Hakkari 30100, Turkey
4
Bafra Vocational School, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun 55400, Turkey
5
Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty Sport Science, Adiyaman University, Adiyaman 0200, Turkey
6
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Processing Techniques, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Adiyaman University, Adiyaman 0200, Turkey
7
eCampus University, 22060 Novedrate, Italy
8
Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
9
Department of Human Sciences and Promotion of the Quality of Life, San Raffaele Rome Open University, 00166 Rome, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(16), 7284; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14167284
Submission received: 17 July 2024 / Revised: 8 August 2024 / Accepted: 15 August 2024 / Published: 19 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Performance and Health in Sport and Exercise)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In this study, the effects of exercise applied to sedentary individuals and the use of pomegranate–black carrot juice on minerals, fatty acids and some biochemical parameters were examined. Twenty healthy sedentary men participated in this study. This research consisted of three stages. Blood samples were taken from the participants before this study (Baseline), after the participants exercised (60 min/day) for 10 days (Exerciseonly), after the participants were given pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture (100 mL/100 mL) along with exercise (60 min/day) for 10 days (Exercise+supp). While AST and ALT levels increased in the Exerciseonly phase, they showed a relative decrease in the Exercise+supp phase. It was determined that Mg level in the Exerciseonly phase decreased compared to the Baseline and the Exercise+supp phase. It was determined that the Zn level in the Exercise+supp phase increased compared to the Zn level in the Exerciseonly phase. It was determined that 6:0, 12:0 and 14:0 fatty acid levels increased in the Exerciseonly phase compared to the Baseline. A decrease was detected in the Exerciseonly phase compared to the Baseline 18:2n6c, 18:3n6 and 18:3n3 fatty acid levels. It can be said that exercise and the use of pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture in sedentary individuals have supportive and corrective effects on serum mineral, fatty acids and some biochemical parameters.

1. Introduction

Athletes often turn to micronutrient supplements to improve their performance, improve immune function, or correct mineral and vitamin deficiencies [1]. In addition, athletes consume antioxidant-containing foods to minimize oxidative stress that may occur due to exercise as well as to increase their performance [2]. One of the important antioxidant sources that can reduce the harmful effects of oxidative stress is fruits and vegetables [3]. Fruits and vegetables have a very rich content of vitamins, minerals, fiber and antioxidants [4].
It has been stated that pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) fruit, which has many healing properties for health, prevents or helps treat various disease risk markers (such as oxidative stress, hyperglycemia, high cholesterol and inflammatory activities) [5]. It has been reported that regular consumption of pomegranate juice or pomegranate juice concentrate (PJC) is associated with a decrease in blood pressure, improvement in blood lipid levels and reduction in oxidative stress [6,7]. Fuster-Mũnoz et al. (2016) reported that pomegranate juice supplementation had a positive effect on the modulation of fat and protein damage in endurance-based athletes [8]. The reason for this healing feature of pomegranate is due to the various phytochemicals it contains, which are responsible for its strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential [9]. It is emphasized that black carrot (Dacus carota L.), which has another antioxidant property and is a source of polyphenols, including phenolic acids, has significant effects on improving health [10]. These, like pomegranate, increase antioxidant activity [11] and also lead to improvements in lipid peroxidation and cardiovascular risk markers [12]. Additionally, a recent study reported that the combined application of pomegranate–black carrot juice with exercise reduced the level of oxidative stress [13]. It is stated that exercise causes an increase in oxidative enzymes and microinjuries in skeletal muscle [14]. Additionally, some studies have reported that Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) and Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) enzymes increase, depending on the type and intensity of exercise [15,16,17]. However, there is no clear consensus in the literature as to which form of exercise can change these parameters and to what extent.
One of the macronutrients that is important for the human body is lipids [18]. Since the lipid profile changes depending on physical activity, it is very important to understand the working mechanism of lipid metabolism for both athletes and sedentary individuals [19]. In a study conducted by Bengin et al., it was reported that exercise and diet application can regulate one’s lipid profile, ghrelin, and leptin levels, and increased irisin with exercise can activate lipid metabolism and support positive changes in lean mass [20]. Fatty acids (FAs) are also an important energy source during exercise [21,22,23]. FAs are considered a basic component of the erythrocyte membrane. In addition, exercise and nutrition are two factors that affect their structure and function [24]. In a study conducted by Corsetto et al., it was reported that physical activity application combined with a standard diet program caused a significant decrease in linoleic acid (C18:2) and omega-6 PUFAs and an increase in stearic acid (C18:0) and oleic acid (C18:1) concentrations [25]. FAs are an important energy source for skeletal muscle contraction, especially during light–moderate intensity and long-term exercise [26]. It has been stated that FAs and lipid intermediates derived from them may play a role in the regulation of skeletal muscle mass and function [27].
Consuming antioxidant-containing foods can reduce exercise-induced muscle damage and oxidative stress markers. For this reason, the hypothesis that the beneficial effects of pomegranate–black carrot juice, known for its rich antioxidant content, may have positive effects on mineral metabolism, fatty acids and some biochemical parameters was tested in this study.
In light of all this information, this study aimed to examine the effects of pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture applied together with exercise on mineral metabolism, fatty acids and some biochemical parameters in sedentary individuals.

2. Materials and Methods

Before starting this research, ethical approval was received from Fırat University/Non-Interventional Research Ethics Committee, dated 25 April 2019, meeting number 07 and decision number 15. A total of 20 healthy male students studying at Fırat University, not doing sports regularly, living in dormitories affiliated with the credit dormitories institution, subject to the same nutrition program and having no obstacle to doing sports voluntarily participated in this study (age: mean ± s.d. = 21.1 ± 2.3 years, height: mean ± s.d. = 175.6 ± 2.9 cm, body weight: mean ± s.d. = 75.2 ± 3.1 kg). Before this study, an analysis was conducted using G*Power (Version 3.1) to determine the statistical power and the required minimum sample size. Based on the research findings of Ammar et al. [28], this analysis indicated that with a Type I error rate (alpha) of 0.05, a test power (1-beta) of 0.80 and an effect size of 1.439, a minimum sample size of 9 participants was necessary to detect a significant difference under a two-tailed alternative hypothesis (H1). However, to obtain stronger and more reliable results, this study was conducted with 20 participants. Exclusion criteria from this study were (1) not following the exercise program and not consuming pomegranate–black carrot juice throughout this study and (2) refusing to donate blood and experiencing any injury during this study. This study was designed as a non-randomized, single-blind and crossover research design model. This research consisted of three stages. Serum samples were obtained from blood samples taken from the participants at each stage (three different stages).

2.1. Research Design

The research design consists of three different phases. It is shown in the figure (Figure 1).

2.2. Exercise Protocol

This research was carried out at Fırat University/Multi-Purpose Sports Hall, and before starting this research, a comprehensive explanation was given to the participants about the exercise program to be implemented with expert trainers. The participants completed long-term aerobic flat running (5000 m) over 10 days. Then, they completed 3 × 10 sit-ups and 3 × 10 push-ups and performed cool-down exercises. Exercises were performed every day between 16.00 and 17.00 to avoid circadian variations as with other study protocols [29,30,31]. Participants completed flat running exercises at a standard pace of 65–70% of their maximum heart rate (HR) (50–55% VO2max). Maximum HR was calculated according to the Karvonen formula (220-Age-DN × Exercise intensity + DN). To control running speeds, HR during exercise was monitored simultaneously with a telemetric HR monitor (S610i, Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland).

2.3. Giving Pomegranate–Black Carrot Juices

The pomegranate fruit taken daily was cleaned by washing with distilled water, and the juice was obtained in a juicer after the pomegranates were separated from their peels. Black carrot juice was also obtained using the same method. Pomegranate–black carrot juice was given to the participants daily, 45 min before starting each exercise program (for 10 days) in the second stage [13]. No additional chemical products were added to the natural pomegranate–black carrot juice. In the literature, the content of pomegranate juice was determined as 490.75 mg/kg of phenolic acid, 137.1 mg/L of anthocyanin, 175 mg/100 g of ellagic acid, 63 mg/kg of total flavonoids and 1530 mg/kg of total antioxidants [32]. In black carrot juice, anthocyanins were found to be 837 mg/100 g, total phenolics 7.98–291.48 mg/100 g, flavonoids 3.00–111.70 mg/100 g, flavonols 51.6 mg/100 g and falcarinol 1.55 mg/100 g [33].

2.4. Analysis of Biochemical Parameters

2.4.1. Obtaining Serum Samples

When each stage of this research was completed, venous blood samples were taken from the participants’ arms with a heparin syringe that can draw 5 mL of blood. In order to make blood collection easier after exercise, an intraket was inserted into the participants before exercise. Serum samples were obtained by centrifuging the blood samples at 4000 rpm for 10 min under appropriate conditions. The analysis of the serums was performed by the photometric method on the ARCHITECT Cİ 16,200 TM analyzer in the biochemistry laboratory of Fırat University Faculty of Medicine. AST, ALT, TG and cholesterol measurements were made of the serum samples in a short time.

2.4.2. Analysis of Serum Mineral Levels

Of the samples, 0.5 g was taken and transferred to the DAP60-K PTFE containers of the microwave dissolving system and 4 Ml HNO3 (65% w/v), and 1 mL HClO4 (60% v/w) was added. After thawing, the dissolved samples were transferred to 20 mL volumetric flasks and made up a final volume of 0.1 M HNO3. Additionally, blank samples were prepared and thawed in the same manner. Stock solutions of the analyzed Copper (Cu), Magnesium (Mg), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn) minerals were prepared and calibrated on the device. Finally, the obtained solutions were analyzed using the ICP-MS device [34].

2.4.3. Analysis of Serum Fatty Acid Levels

Of the serum samples, 0.5 mL was taken and homogenized in a hexane/isopropanol (3:2 v/v) mixture. Lipid extracts were centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 5 min. Afterwards, the solvents were removed at 40 °C [35]. Fatty acids in lipid extracts were treated with 2% sulfuric acid (v/v) in methanol and converted into methyl esters. Fatty acids present in lipid extracts were analyzed using gas chromatography. Three repeat measurements were made for each sample. The results obtained were expressed as the total percentage of each fatty acid among the total fatty acids, and the calculations were carried out using the GC Solutions 2.42 program.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The data were analyzed using SPSS version 22.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The data are reported as mean and standard deviation. Data normality was verified using the Shapiro–Wilk test. The assumptions of sphericity were assessed by Mauchly’s test. Whenever an assumption was violated, a Greenhouse–Geisser correction was applied on the degree of freedom if the epsilon (ε) value was <0.75 and a Huynh–Feldt correction was applied if ε was >0.75. A one-way analysis of variance for repeated measures was used to compare the variables related to different exercise forms. When a difference was found, a Bonferroni post hoc test was applied. Partial eta squared (ηp2) was used to evaluate effect sizes. The alpha level was set at 0.05 for all the tests.

3. Results

When looking at Table 1, while an increase was observed in the AST and ALT levels of the Exerciseonly phase compared to the AST and ALT levels of the Baseline phase (p < 0.05), a relative decrease was detected in the AST and ALT levels of the Exercise+supp phase (p > 0.05). The Exercise+supp phase AST and ALT levels decreased compared to Exerciseonly phase AST and ALT levels (p < 0.05). No statistical difference was observed between cholesterol levels of all stages (p > 0.05). A decrease was detected in the TG level in the Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phases compared to the TG level in the Baseline phase (p < 0.05).
When looking at Table 2, it was observed that there was no statistical difference between Cu levels at all stages (p > 0.05). It was determined that the Exerciseonly phase Mg level decreased compared to the Baseline phase and Exercise+supp phase Mg level (p < 0.05). It was determined that there was no statistical difference between Mn levels at all stages (p > 0.05). It was determined that Fe levels in the Exerciseonly phase and Exercise+supp phase decreased significantly compared to the Fe level in the Baseline phase (p < 0.001). A decrease in Zn level was observed in the Exerciseonly phase (p < 0.001) and Exercise+supp phase (p < 0.01) compared to the Zn level in the Baseline phase. It was determined that the Zn level in the Exercise+supp phase increased compared to the Zn level in the Exerciseonly phase (p < 0.001).
When looking at Table 3, it was determined that the ∑SFA level in the Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phases was higher than the ∑SFA level in the Baseline phase (p < 0.05). It was observed that ∑PUFA and ∑USFA levels in Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phases decreased compared to Baseline phase ∑PUFA and ∑USFA levels (p > 0.05, p < 0.01). In the Exerciseonly phase, 6:0, 12:0 and 14:0 fatty acid levels were found to increase compared to the Baseline phase (p < 0.05). Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phase 16:1 fatty acid levels decreased compared to of the Baseline phase fatty acid levels (p < 0.05, p < 0.01). It was observed that the 18:0 level in the Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phases increased compared to the Baseline phase (p < 0.05). A decrease was detected in the Exerciseonly phase compared to the Baseline phase 18:2n6c, 18:3n6 and 18:3n3 fatty acid levels (p < 0.05; p < 0.01). It was determined that the level of 18:2n6c in the Exercise+supp phase increased compared to the Exerciseonly phase (p < 0.05). It was observed that the 20:5n3 level in the Exerciseonly phase decreased compared to the Baseline phase (p < 0.001).

4. Discussion

This study aimed to examine the effects of an exercise program applied to sedentary individuals and the use of pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture on serum mineral and fatty acid levels and some biochemical parameters.
In this study, when the changes in serum biochemistry levels were evaluated (Table 1), no statistical difference was observed between cholesterol levels of all stages. A decrease in TG levels in the Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phases was detected compared to the TG level in the Baseline phase. In addition, while an increase was observed in the Exerciseonly phase compared to the AST and ALT levels of the Baseline phase, a relative decrease was detected in the AST and ALT levels of the Exercise+supp phase. Considering the studies conducted in this context, it has been reported that aerobic exercise significantly reduces low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C) and TG, while improving high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) [36]. It has been reported in different studies that regular exercise has positive effects on LDL-C, TG and HDL-C [37,38]. Although the mechanisms underlying the effect of exercise on the lipid profile are not clear, it is stated that exercise increases the ability of skeletal muscles to use lipids instead of glycogen, thus reducing plasma lipid levels [39]. It has been reported that AST and ALT levels increased significantly at the end of the run compared to before the run in three different long-distance runs and ultramarathon runners [40,41]. In a study conducted on pomegranate juice, it was reported that an 8-week combined application (aerobic training and pomegranate juice intake) significantly reduced AST, ALT and Gamma Glutamyl Transferase (GGT) enzymes compared to the aerobic training group alone and the pomegranate juice group alone [42]. This effect of pomegranate juice is thought to be due to its ability to reduce the activity of AST, ALT and GGT enzymes, possibly by reducing blood glucose, increasing the glycation of antioxidant enzymes and the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [43]. In line with the findings obtained in this study, the changes in serum AST and ALT are similar to the research findings in the literature. We think that the decrease in AST and ALT levels in the Exercise+supp phase back to the levels in the Baseline phase is due to the effect of the pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture.
In this study, when the changes in serum mineral levels were evaluated (Table 2) and compared to the Baseline phase, Mg, Mn, Fe and Zn levels decreased in the Exerciseonly phase, while only the Cu level increased. An increase in Cu, Mg and Zn levels was observed in the Exercise+supp phase compared to the Exerciseonly phase. Minerals and trace elements are micronutrients that play a role in hundreds of biological processes, and their deficiency can negatively affect athletic performance [44]. Considering the studies conducted in this context, it has been reported that Mg intake has a positive effect on exercise performance and different muscle strength measurements [45,46,47,48]. It has been stated that exercise performance is negatively affected by Mg deficiency [49,50]. Additionally, when studies on Zn are examined, it has been observed that serum Zn levels decrease after exercise compared to before exercise in different physical effort tests defined as aerobic endurance and muscle strength [51,52,53]. It has been reported that Zn deficiency causes decreases in physical performance and is associated with higher oxidative stress [54,55]. When we look at the studies on Mg and Zn in the literature, it is seen that the intake of these minerals has effects on exercise performance. When the findings of this research are evaluated, it is thought that the Mg and Zn levels decreased in the Exerciseonly phase and increased again in the Exercise+supp phase due to the minerals contained in the pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture.
When changes in serum fatty acid levels are evaluated (Table 3) in the Exerciseonly phase, serum-saturated fatty acids of 6:0, 12:0, 14:0 and 18:0 fatty acids were found to be statistically higher than the Baseline phase. Additionally, a relative increase in the 16:0 fatty acid level was observed. It was observed that the levels of serum fatty acids 16:1, 18:2n6c, 18:3n6, 18:3n3, 20:3n6, 20:5n3 and 22:6n3 in the Exerciseonly phase decreased compared to the Baseline phase. In addition, it was observed that 18:1n9c, 18:2n6c and 20:4n6 fatty acids, which are important unsaturated fatty acids, decreased in the Exerciseonly phase compared to the Baseline phase. It was observed that 18:2n6c fatty acid, which decreased with the effect of the pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture, increased during the Exercise+supp phase. Relative improvements in serum fatty acid levels were detected with the effect of the pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture. 16:0 and 18:0 fatty acids are used as substrates by the stearyl-CoA desaturase (Δ-9-desaturase) enzyme. Fatty acids are formed from 16:0 to 16:1 and from 18:0 to 18:1. Stearyl-CoA desaturase enzyme is a very important enzyme for the biochemistry of the cell. It also plays a role in protecting the membrane structure of the cell. Nutrition and hormones are effective in the activity of this enzyme [56]. In this study, while the 18:0 level increases in the Exerciseonly phase, we think that the decrease in the 18:1n9c level is due to decreases in the activity of the stearyl-CoA desaturase enzyme. Looking at the studies conducted in this context, Lyudinina et al. (2018) reported that after 1.3 km and 15 km races in cross-country skiing athletes, there was no change in long-chain fatty acid levels compared to the athletes’ initial values, while a significant increase was observed in the levels of C10:0, C12:0 and C14:0 has been reported [57]. Gollasch et al. (2019) found that an acute maximal exercise resulted in relatively high plasma levels of free fatty acids C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:1 cis and C18:2, while there was no change in the fatty acid level in erythrocytes. It has been stated that the levels of, C12:0, C14:1, C18:3n-6, C20:4n-3 and C22:1 are relatively low [58]. Xu et al. (2021) found that the 4-week combinatorial group (including exercise and dietary restriction) had significant changes in body composition compared to the control group. Significant changes in SFAs, MUFAs and especially a decrease in the levels of C14:0, C15:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, C16:1n-7, C18:1n-9 and C20:1n-9 were also reported [59]. When studies on the effect of exercise (acute or chronic) on fatty acid levels are examined, it has been observed that exercise can change these levels. There are similarities between the research findings in the literature and the findings of this study.

5. Limitations

This study has some limitations. First, the individuals participating in this study were selected only from sedentary men and the sample size was limited. Second, there was no purification between the stages and this study was conducted on a single sample group.
As a result, with the findings of this research, it was determined that pomegranate–black carrot juice mixture showed positive corrective effects on serum AST, ALT, Zn, Mg and some fatty acid levels from stress caused by exercise in sedentary individuals. It is thought that further research is needed in both sedentary individuals and athlete groups to support these research findings and explain the potential mechanisms underlying our findings.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.B., V.Ç. and A.O.; methodology, K.B., V.Ç. and T.A.; validation, K.B., I.A. and K.Y.A.; formal analysis, T.A. and Y.Y.; investigation, V.Ç. and K.Y.A.; data curation, K.B., I.A. and T.A.; writing—original draft preparation, K.B., A.O. and V.Ç.; writing—review and editing, K.B., V.Ç., T.A., L.R., A.F. and G.M.M.; visualization, L.R., A.F. and G.M.M.; supervision, L.R. and A.F.; project administration, G.M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Fırat University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit (FÜBAP, project number: BSY.19.05).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Before starting this research, ethical approval was received from Fırat University/Non-Interventional Research Ethics Committee, dated 25 April 2019, meeting number 07 and decision number 15.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Applsci 14 07284 g001
Figure 1. General research protocol.
Figure 1. General research protocol.
Applsci 14 07284 g001
Table 1. Serum biochemistry levels.
Table 1. Serum biochemistry levels.
StagesAST (U/L)ALT (U/L)CHOLESTEROL (mg/dL)TG (mg/dL)
Baseline26.66 ± 1.4025.33 ± 1.23144.22 ± 4.5891.01 ± 4.86
Exerciseonly29.22 ± 0.98 a28.88 ± 1.26 a138.66 ± 5.2867.77 ± 5.32 a
Exercise+supp24.77 ± 0.52 x24.66 ± 1.45 x136.33 ± 5.2968.55 ± 5.02 a
ηp2: 0.33ηp2: 0.32ηp2: 0.02ηp2: 0.65
Comparison of other stages according to the Baseline stage; a: p < 0.05. Comparison of Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phases; x: p < 0.05; ηp2: partial eta squared.
Table 2. Serum mineral levels (ppb).
Table 2. Serum mineral levels (ppb).
StagesCuMgMnFeZn
Baseline748.55 ± 21.0318,626.31 ± 206.015.70 ± 0.252883.90 ± 123.881270.26 ± 22.08
Exerciseonly776.47 ± 19.9217,798.75 ± 171.65 a4.85 ± 0.241680.52 ± 62.34 c885.84 ± 24.97 c
Exercise+supp797.64 ± 18.4718,689.53 ± 337.32 x4.69 ± 0.261591.20 ± 63.24 c1090.22 ± 18.30 bz
ηp2: 0.02ηp2: 0.04ηp2: 0.34ηp2: 0.90ηp2: 0.39
Comparison of other stages according to the Baseline stage. a: p < 0.05; b: p < 0.01; c: p < 0.001. Comparison of Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phases. x: p < 0.05; z: p < 0.001; ηp2: partial eta squared.
Table 3. Serum fatty acid levels (%).
Table 3. Serum fatty acid levels (%).
Stages
Fatty Acids BaselineExerciseonlyExercise+suppηp2
Caproic acid(6:0)0.173 ± 0.0170.232 ± 0.007 a 0.208 ± 0.0060.98
Lauric acid(12:0)0.054 ± 0.0120.130 ± 0.028 a0.090 ± 0.0140.97
Myristic acid(14:0)0.321 ± 0.0310.383 ± 0.023 a0.339 ± 0.0320.37
Pentadeconic acid(15:0)0.126 ± 0.0090.134 ± 0.0150.155 ± 0.0120.30
Palmitic acid(16:0)22.484 ± 0.49824.159 ± 0.27922.808 ± 0.5350.08
Heptadeconic acid(17:0)0.342 ± 0.0120.331 ± 0.0210.317 ± 0.0140.03
Stearic acid(18:0)26.090 ± 0.52029.845 ± 0.327 a29.882 ± 0.833 a0.23
Arachidic acid(20:0)0.361 ± 0.0170.409 ± 0.0150.444 ± 0.019 a0.20
Behenic acid(22:0)0.339 ± 0.0310.399 ± 0.0170.378 ± 0.0280.32
Trichosanoic acid(23:0)0.077 ± 0.0080.112 ± 0.0080.121 ± 0.0330.70
Lingoseric acid(24:0)0.285 ± 0.0380.339 ± 0.0200.302 ± 0.0200.36
Total saturated fatty acid level(∑SFA)50.652 ± 1.55156.473 ± 2.014 a55.044 ± 1.706 a0.17
Pentadecanoic acid(15:1)0.657 ± 0.0240.815 ± 0.024 b0.793 ± 0.019 b0.45
Palmitoleic acid(16:1)1.241 ± 0.0651.035 ± 0.029 a0.828 ± 0.012 b0.42
Oleic acid(18:1n9c)8.665 ± 0.2417.802 ± 0.2198.195 ± 0.3950.16
Eicosenoic acid(20:1n9c)0.135 ± 0.0090.132 ± 0.0080.139 ± 0.0050.04
Nervonic acid(24:1)0.262 ± 0.0150.320 ± 0.0150.304 ± 0.0170.41
Total monounsaturated fatty acid level(∑MUFA)10.96 ± 0.54210.104 ± 0.43710.259 ± 0.6110.10
Linoleic acid(18:2n6c)23.153 ± 0.11320.637 ± 0.149 a22.174 ± 0.120 x0.19
Linoleadic acid(18:2n6t)0.033 ± 0.0020.045 ± 0.002 a0.038 ± 0.0020.66
Gamma-linolenic acid(18:3n6)0.115 ± 0.0140.069 ± 0.008 b0.070 ± 0.006 b0.88
Alpha-linolenic acid(18:3n3)0.172 ± 0.0820.097 ± 0.013 b0.118 ± 0.011 b0.90
Eicosatrienoic acid(20:3n6)2.034 ± 0.1911.750 ± 0.159 a1.750 ± 0.166 a0.30
Eicosapentaenoic acid(20:5n3)0.242 ± 0.0260.116 ± 0.023 c0.169 ± 0.017 a0.95
Docosahexaenoic acid(22:6n3)2.520 ± 0.0661.517 ± 0.025 a1.548 ± 0.037 a0.88
Eicosadienoic acid(20:2n6)0.292 ± 0.0180.278 ± 0.0190.255 ± 0.0200.11
Eicosatetraenoic acid(20:4n6)9.827 ± 0.2658.914 ± 0.2998.575 ± 0.4310.15
Total polyunsaturated fatty acid level(∑PUFA)38.388 ± 1.47833.423 ± 1.130 b34.697 ± 1.342 a0.26
Total unsaturated fatty acid level(∑USFA)49.348 ± 1.85443.527 ± 1.566 b44.956 ± 1.415 a0.22
Comparison of other stages according to the Baseline stage. a: p < 0.05; b: p < 0.01; c: p < 0.001. Comparison of Exerciseonly and Exercise+supp phases. x: p < 0.05; ηp2: partial eta squared.
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Bozbay, K.; Çinar, V.; Akbulut, T.; Aydemir, I.; Yasul, Y.; Aytac, K.Y.; Ozkaya, A.; Russo, L.; Fusco, A.; Migliaccio, G.M. Effects of Exercise and Pomegranate–Black Carrot Juice Interventions on Mineral Metabolism and Fatty Acids. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 7284. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14167284

AMA Style

Bozbay K, Çinar V, Akbulut T, Aydemir I, Yasul Y, Aytac KY, Ozkaya A, Russo L, Fusco A, Migliaccio GM. Effects of Exercise and Pomegranate–Black Carrot Juice Interventions on Mineral Metabolism and Fatty Acids. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(16):7284. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14167284

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bozbay, Kenan, Vedat Çinar, Taner Akbulut, Isa Aydemir, Yavuz Yasul, Kursat Yusuf Aytac, Ahmet Ozkaya, Luca Russo, Andrea Fusco, and Gian Mario Migliaccio. 2024. "Effects of Exercise and Pomegranate–Black Carrot Juice Interventions on Mineral Metabolism and Fatty Acids" Applied Sciences 14, no. 16: 7284. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14167284

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