Figure 1.
The surface isobaric charts at (a) 08H, 1 September 2023 and (b) 08H, 8 October 2023. Chinese translations are shown in the figure. True color satellite image of Himawari-9 satellite of Japan Meteorological Agency at (c) 08H, 1 September 2023 and (d) 08H, 8 October 2023. All times are local time (+8 UTC).
Figure 1.
The surface isobaric charts at (a) 08H, 1 September 2023 and (b) 08H, 8 October 2023. Chinese translations are shown in the figure. True color satellite image of Himawari-9 satellite of Japan Meteorological Agency at (c) 08H, 1 September 2023 and (d) 08H, 8 October 2023. All times are local time (+8 UTC).
Figure 2.
(a) Locations of eight anemometers along the bridge under study. The cyan line represents a cross section perpendicular to the bridge where the simulation winds on it will be shown in Figures 11b and 18b. (b) Vertical sectional view of the bridge projected onto the horizontal red line in (a).
Figure 2.
(a) Locations of eight anemometers along the bridge under study. The cyan line represents a cross section perpendicular to the bridge where the simulation winds on it will be shown in Figures 11b and 18b. (b) Vertical sectional view of the bridge projected onto the horizontal red line in (a).
Figure 3.
(a) The 10 min mean wind speeds and directions for the eight anemometers at 20:10H, 1 September 2023 in local time and (b) at 21:30H, 1 September 2023 in local time.
Figure 3.
(a) The 10 min mean wind speeds and directions for the eight anemometers at 20:10H, 1 September 2023 in local time and (b) at 21:30H, 1 September 2023 in local time.
Figure 4.
(a) The 10 min mean wind speeds and directions for the eight anemometers at 17:50H, 8 October 2023 in local time and (b) at 22:25H, 8 October 2023 in local time.
Figure 4.
(a) The 10 min mean wind speeds and directions for the eight anemometers at 17:50H, 8 October 2023 in local time and (b) at 22:25H, 8 October 2023 in local time.
Figure 5.
(a) The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd nested domains of the RAMS simulation. (b) The 3rd, 4th, and 5th nested domains of the RAMS simulation. (c) The domain of the PALM simulation is denoted by a red rectangle, where the boundary is the 5th nested domain of the RAMS simulation.
Figure 5.
(a) The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd nested domains of the RAMS simulation. (b) The 3rd, 4th, and 5th nested domains of the RAMS simulation. (c) The domain of the PALM simulation is denoted by a red rectangle, where the boundary is the 5th nested domain of the RAMS simulation.
Figure 6.
(a) Horizontal winds and (b) eddy dissipation rate at a height of around 60 m above the mean sea level at 12:10Z, 1 September 2023 in RAMS simulation.
Figure 6.
(a) Horizontal winds and (b) eddy dissipation rate at a height of around 60 m above the mean sea level at 12:10Z, 1 September 2023 in RAMS simulation.
Figure 7.
Simulated 10 min mean wind speed and direction at the locations of the eight anemometers by PALM simulation at (a) 20:10H, 1 September 2023 and (b) 21:30H, 1 September 2023. Both are in local time.
Figure 7.
Simulated 10 min mean wind speed and direction at the locations of the eight anemometers by PALM simulation at (a) 20:10H, 1 September 2023 and (b) 21:30H, 1 September 2023. Both are in local time.
Figure 8.
Time series of 10 min mean wind speed for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 1 September 2023 in local time.
Figure 8.
Time series of 10 min mean wind speed for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 1 September 2023 in local time.
Figure 9.
Time series of wind gusts for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 1 September 2023 in local time.
Figure 9.
Time series of wind gusts for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 1 September 2023 in local time.
Figure 10.
Time series of 10 min wind direction for CB5 on 1 September 2023 in local time.
Figure 10.
Time series of 10 min wind direction for CB5 on 1 September 2023 in local time.
Figure 11.
(
a) Simulated 10 min mean wind speed and direction distribution by PALM at a height of about 70 m above mean sea level and (
b) vertical cross-section of wind speed and direction across the bridge at 20:10H, 1 September 2023 in local time. The cross-section location is depicted by the cyan line in
Figure 2a, where a smaller value on the x-axis indicates a location further south.
Figure 11.
(
a) Simulated 10 min mean wind speed and direction distribution by PALM at a height of about 70 m above mean sea level and (
b) vertical cross-section of wind speed and direction across the bridge at 20:10H, 1 September 2023 in local time. The cross-section location is depicted by the cyan line in
Figure 2a, where a smaller value on the x-axis indicates a location further south.
Figure 12.
(a) Horizontal wind speed and (b) eddy dissipation rate at a height of around 60 m above the mean sea level at 09:50Z, 8 October 2023 in RAMS simulation.
Figure 12.
(a) Horizontal wind speed and (b) eddy dissipation rate at a height of around 60 m above the mean sea level at 09:50Z, 8 October 2023 in RAMS simulation.
Figure 13.
Simulated 10 min mean wind speed and direction at the locations of the eight anemometers by PALM simulation at (a) 17:50H, 8 October 2023 and (b) 22:25H, 8 October 2023. Both are in local time.
Figure 13.
Simulated 10 min mean wind speed and direction at the locations of the eight anemometers by PALM simulation at (a) 17:50H, 8 October 2023 and (b) 22:25H, 8 October 2023. Both are in local time.
Figure 14.
Time series of 10 min mean wind speed for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 8 October 2023 in local time.
Figure 14.
Time series of 10 min mean wind speed for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 8 October 2023 in local time.
Figure 15.
Time series of wind gusts for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 8 October 2023 in local time..
Figure 15.
Time series of wind gusts for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 8 October 2023 in local time..
Figure 16.
Time series of 10 min wind direction for CB5 on 8 October 2023 in local time.
Figure 16.
Time series of 10 min wind direction for CB5 on 8 October 2023 in local time.
Figure 17.
Comparison of provisional best track from HKO and NCEP model forecast track for (a) Saola, where the NCEP model is initialized at 2023090106UTC, and (b) Koinu, where the NCEP model is initialized at 2023100806UTC.
Figure 17.
Comparison of provisional best track from HKO and NCEP model forecast track for (a) Saola, where the NCEP model is initialized at 2023090106UTC, and (b) Koinu, where the NCEP model is initialized at 2023100806UTC.
Figure 18.
(
a) Simulated 10 min mean wind speed and direction distribution by PALM at a height of about 70 m above mean sea level and (
b) vertical cross-section of wind speed and direction across the bridge at 17:50H, 8 October 2023 in local time. The cross-section location is depicted by the cyan line in
Figure 2a, where a smaller value on the x-axis indicates a location further south.
Figure 18.
(
a) Simulated 10 min mean wind speed and direction distribution by PALM at a height of about 70 m above mean sea level and (
b) vertical cross-section of wind speed and direction across the bridge at 17:50H, 8 October 2023 in local time. The cross-section location is depicted by the cyan line in
Figure 2a, where a smaller value on the x-axis indicates a location further south.
Figure 19.
Time series of measured and simulated 10 min mean wind speed for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 1 September 2023 in local time. The simulated wind speeds are driven by GRAPES-Meso.
Figure 19.
Time series of measured and simulated 10 min mean wind speed for the six anemometers (a) CB1, (b) CB3, (c) CB5, (d) CB6, (e) CB7, and (f) CB8 on 1 September 2023 in local time. The simulated wind speeds are driven by GRAPES-Meso.
Table 1.
Correlation of 10 min mean and hourly mean wind speeds between measurement and simulations for Saola.
Table 1.
Correlation of 10 min mean and hourly mean wind speeds between measurement and simulations for Saola.
| CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
RAMS (10-min mean) | 0.49 | 0.46 | 0.56 | 0.58 | 0.44 | 0.35 |
PALM (10-min mean) | 0.69 | 0.65 | 0.64 | 0.35 | 0.69 | 0.52 |
RAMS (hourly mean) | 0.63 | 0.58 | 0.86 | 0.79 | 0.52 | 0.49 |
PALM (hourly mean) | 0.77 | 0.71 | 0.86 | 0.64 | 0.70 | 0.62 |
Table 2.
Average of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Saola.
Table 2.
Average of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Saola.
Wind Speed (m/s) | CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
measurement | 14.9 | 16.7 | 26.3 | 21.9 | 16.3 | 12.6 |
RAMS | 17.4 | 17.2 | 19.6 | 19.6 | 17.4 | 17.4 |
% diff of RAMS | 17% | 3% | −26% | −11% | 7% | 38% |
PALM | 17.5 | 16.3 | 23.7 | 24.4 | 20.0 | 18.2 |
% diff of PALM | 18% | −3% | −10% | 11% | 23% | 44% |
Table 3.
Maximum of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Saola.
Table 3.
Maximum of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Saola.
Wind Speed (m/s) | CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
measurement | 30 | 29.1 | 44.9 | 41.7 | 31.2 | 21.7 |
RAMS | 29.9 | 30.2 | 34.7 | 34.5 | 31.0 | 30.9 |
% diff of RAMS | 0% | 4% | −23% | −17% | −1% | 42% |
PALM | 28.4 | 34.0 | 38.9 | 38.8 | 31.4 | 27.3 |
% diff of PALM | −5% | 17% | −13% | −7% | 1% | 26% |
Table 4.
Time at which the 10 min mean wind speeds reached the maximum for Saola.
Table 4.
Time at which the 10 min mean wind speeds reached the maximum for Saola.
Maximum Wind Time | CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
measurement | 21:41:00 | 21:45:00 | 19:01:00 | 21:51:00 | 21:51:00 | 21:51:00 |
RAMS | 20:09:50 | 20:11:40 | 20:11:40 | 20:11:40 | 20:11:40 | 20:11:40 |
PALM | 21:08:40 | 21:02:40 | 20:07:00 | 20:07:00 | 21:35:40 | 21:02:20 |
Table 5.
Correlation of 10 min mean wind speed between measurements and simulations for Koinu.
Table 5.
Correlation of 10 min mean wind speed between measurements and simulations for Koinu.
| CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
RAMS | −0.37 | −0.27 | −0.19 | −0.1 | −0.03 | −0.3 |
PALM | −0.35 | −0.18 | −0.14 | −0.12 | −0.13 | −0.12 |
Table 6.
Average of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Koinu.
Table 6.
Average of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Koinu.
Wind Speed (m/s) | CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
measurement | 12.0 | 13.2 | 18.4 | 17.7 | 13.4 | 8.9 |
RAMS | 9.7 | 9.2 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 9.0 | 9.1 |
% diff of RAMS | −19% | −30% | −44% | −41% | −32% | 1% |
PALM | 8.9 | 8.9 | 11.5 | 10.9 | 9.6 | 10.0 |
% diff of PALM | −26% | −32% | −38% | −38% | −28% | 12% |
Table 7.
Maximum of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Koinu.
Table 7.
Maximum of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Koinu.
Wind Speed (m/s) | CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
measurement | 16.6 | 18.8 | 32.7 | 25.6 | 19.5 | 14.5 |
RAMS | 13.6 | 13.5 | 15.6 | 15.8 | 14.2 | 14.3 |
% diff of RAMS | −18% | −28% | −52% | −38% | −27% | −1% |
PALM | 16.7 | 16.9 | 18.5 | 17.4 | 20.5 | 15.6 |
% diff of PALM | 0% | −10% | −43% | −32% | 5% | 8% |
Table 8.
Time at which the 10 min mean wind speeds reached the maximum for Saola. The coupled model is driven by GRAPES-Meso.
Table 8.
Time at which the 10 min mean wind speeds reached the maximum for Saola. The coupled model is driven by GRAPES-Meso.
Maximum Wind Time | CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
measurement | 21:41:00 | 21:45:00 | 19:01:00 | 21:51:00 | 21:51:00 | 21:51:00 |
RAMS | 22:09:10 | 18:30:50 | 18:31:00 | 18:31:00 | 18:31:00 | 18:31:00 |
PALM | 22:09:40 | 22:55:40 | 22:28:00 | 18:09:20 | 22:25:20 | 22:25:00 |
Table 9.
Maximum of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Saola. The coupled model is driven by GRAPES-Meso.
Table 9.
Maximum of 10 min mean wind speed and percentage error with respect to the measurement for Saola. The coupled model is driven by GRAPES-Meso.
Wind Speed (m/s) | CB1 | CB3 | CB5 | CB6 | CB7 | CB8 |
---|
measurement | 30 | 29.1 | 44.9 | 41.7 | 31.2 | 21.7 |
RAMS | 20.6 | 17.1 | 19.4 | 19.5 | 17.0 | 17.2 |
% diff of RAMS | −31% | −41% | −57% | −53% | −45% | −21% |
PALM | 24.2 | 24.7 | 24.5 | 23.8 | 26.3 | 19.7 |
% diff of PALM | −19% | −15% | −45% | −43% | −16% | −9% |