Examining the Influence of Sports Appreciation on Sports Engagement and Behaviors: The Moderating Role of Sport Type among Taiwanese Pupils

Abstract

This study examines the impact of sports participation and appreciation on sports identification and engagement with sports spectatorship with the sport type as a moderator through a perspective of the social and emotional development of elementary school students in Taiwan. This research specifically explores the influence of baseball and badminton activities on students’ engagement and connection with sports. An experimental design, supplemented with questionnaires, was utilized, involving 111 students from middle and upper grades who either participated in a recreational sports camp or did not. This study aimed to uncover quasi-causal relationships among active sports participation, personal identification with sports, and spectator behaviors. Pre- and post-camp surveys indicated that participation in sports camps significantly enhanced sports identification and interest in spectating, particularly in baseball, because of more frequent viewing opportunities. The findings highlight the importance of the type of sport and the level of identification with it in sustaining an ongoing interest in sports spectatorship. Interestingly, introducing spectatorship at badminton camps resulted in decreased sports identification and engagement intentions, suggesting that programs must be tailored to developmental needs and meet the abilities of young learners to be effective.

1. Introduction

1.1. The Importance of Sports for Development and Engagement

Sports activities offer individuals opportunities for leisure, physical training to improve health, and social occasions that build emotional networks. The widespread dissemination of sports information through mass media has accelerated the popularity of sports-related talks and activities. Previous research has identified the relationships among sports identification, sports participation, and spectatorship [1,2]. However, most studies have focused on cross-sectional data collection, with fewer longitudinal studies exploring these relationships over time.

Fostering an appreciation for watching certain sports from a young age, through favorite players or supported teams, could lead to active participation in those sports [3]. However, past studies have primarily targeted middle, high school, or collegiate students, with limited research focusing on elementary school children. Given that sports habits cultivated from an early age become an integral part of life, research has shown that children’s sports appreciation can have a significant impact on their physical, psychological, and social development [4]. Through early involvement in sports, young adults become better stewards of their communities, foster healthy relationships, and excel academically, leading to success in various aspects of their lives [5].

1.2. Taiwan’s Sports Culture

Baseball holds a special symbolic status in Taiwan, from its historical roots to its international achievements, earning it the title of the “national sport”. Major international baseball events and professional matches always draw significant attention from the Taiwanese public. However, relatively few baseball enthusiasts actively participate in the sport because of barriers such as limited access to equipment, suitable venues, and a lack of fellow players. By contrast, badminton seems to be a more accessible sport for participation in comparison with baseball, but it presents fewer opportunities to watch because a badminton match typically lasts a short time [6]. This dynamic highlights the need to better understand how sports participation and spectatorship influence youth development across different types of sports.

1.3. Purpose and Significance of This Study

The previous discussion leads to the major research purpose of exploring the developmental impacts of sports participation, identification, and spectatorship throughout the childhood stage of the human life cycle. Utilizing an experimental design, this study aims to clarify the quasi-causal relationships among these variables and assess how varying levels of participation and spectatorship across different sports influence these developmental interactions. In recent years, Taiwanese government agencies have actively promoted not only participation in leisure sports but also spectatorship, aiming to cultivate a robust culture of sports appreciation among young students. This study seeks to identify the positive influences that enhance students’ willingness to value sports, thereby advancing their understanding and appreciation of sports as part of their broader personal and social development.

2. Literature Review

To explore the dynamics of sports participation, spectatorship levels, sports identification, and the willingness to appreciate sports, this study focuses on baseball and badminton as primary examples. It investigates the influence of active participation and spectatorship on sports identification and the intent to spectate, alongside the impact of sports’ spectatorship levels on these relationships. A detailed review of the literature on the relationship among sports participation and spectatorship, spectatorship level, and sports identification is undertaken, laying the groundwork for the hypotheses central to this research.

2.1. Relationship between Sports Participation and Spectatorship

Previous studies [7,8] identified a marginal correlation (0.11) between playing and watching sports. Nonetheless, these investigations did not delve into the ramifications of individual sports or scrutinize the effects of varying levels of spectatorship of a sport on the dynamic between participation and spectation comprehensively. Conversely, research conducted on a specific sport elucidated that in basketball, spectators at games often had a habit of playing basketball themselves [1,2], inferring that allegiance to a singular sport could enhance the connection between participation and spectation within that specific domain [2].

Additionally, a study [6] utilizing nationwide datasets indicated that distinct sports exhibit divergent levels of participation and spectatorship, thereby influencing the nexus between these two facets. Some sports are easier to get involved in playing than others, while certain sports offer more opportunities to watch compared with others. It was found that sports demonstrating analogous degrees of participation and spectatorship harbor a stronger relationship between these elements as compared with sports where a disparity exists between levels of participation and spectatorship. This body of evidence suggests a nuanced understanding of the interplay between sports participation and spectation, highlighting the necessity for a sport-specific approach in evaluating this relationship.

2.2. Sports Identification and Spectatorship

Identification with a sport encompasses more than mere internal motivation; it is reflected in behaviors that emulate admired aspects of the sport. This identification transforms an individual’s values, behaviors, and thought patterns to align with those of the sport or team they support [2]. Sports identification emerges from shared characteristics or ideas with others or groups, leading to a sense of cohesion and loyalty. This concept is enriched by self-expression in identity and sport theory [9], which posits that individuals use sports as a means for self-expression and identity, whether consciously or unconsciously [10,11].

When an individual’s self-concept aligns with the symbolism of a leisure sport, it fosters an identity-based connection, distinguishing one from different groups [12]. This connection is about using sports as a vehicle to express and reinforce one’s identity, leading to a positive affiliation with the leisure sport [2,13,14]. There is a strong emotional connection and a sense of identity tied to the target sport [15]. This deep-seated identification with a sport or team not only fosters a sense of belonging but also encourages a positive attitude towards sports-related activities, including both participation and spectating.

2.3. Hypothesis Development

When focusing on a specific sport to explore the relationship between participating in and watching the sport, this relationship significantly increases. This increase in interest can be attributed to the passion for the sport. The enthusiasm for engaging in a particular sport is likely to extend to other leisure activities related to that sport, such as spectating. By participating in the sport, a deeper understanding is gained, which enhances the learning and enjoyment of watching the sport, thus generating the desire and motivation to watch [1,2].

Further, for sports identification, when individuals resonate with what a sport symbolizes, this creates a bond based on identity, setting them apart from other groups [2,12]. This phenomenon is rooted in leveraging sports as a means to express and strengthen personal identity, resulting in a positive connection with that sport [2]. Such a profound identification with a sport cultivates a feeling of belonging and promotes a favorable disposition towards activities related to the sport, encompassing both participating in the sport and watching it. Hence, engaging more in a sport or observing it more frequently amplifies this sense of sports identification, reinforcing the individual’s connection and positive feelings towards the sport.

The interaction among participation, identification, and spectatorship creates a reinforcing cycle. The relationship is likely bidirectional. Active participation and identification with a sport enhance the enjoyment and value found in spectating, while watching sports can also inspire greater participation and identification. This mutually reinforcing relationship, referred to as a synergistic relationship, ultimately elevates an individual’s willingness to appreciate and engage with sports. To clarify, the term “synergistic relationship” refers to the way in which these elements interact to amplify each other’s effects, creating a stronger overall connection to the sport. Further, the provision of a sport’s spectatorship opportunities in real life [6] may play a moderating role in not only influencing watching intention but also shaping the dynamics of sport participation, identification, and spectatorship.

3. Research Methods

This study investigates how sports participation, identification levels, types of sports (badminton and baseball), and spectatorship interventions influence sports viewing willingness among middle- and high-grade elementary children. This section outlines the research design, participant details, data collection methods, and measurement techniques. The methodology includes pre- and post-tests to assess changes in sports appreciation, providing detailed insights into the developmental effects of sports engagement on young learners.

3.1. Research Design

This study employed an experimental design to investigate the impacts of sports participation, identification levels, types of sports (with a focus on badminton and baseball), and spectatorship intervention on the willingness to watch sports among middle- and high-grade elementary school students. Conducted in a natural setting through a recreational camp, the experiment involved 111 participants. This design aimed to explore the interplay among sports participation, identification, varying levels of spectatorship across sports, and the effects of spectatorship intervention.

3.2. Data Collection and Treatment

Pre- and post-questionnaires were administered during the first and last weeks of the 16-week experiment, targeting students from a particular elementary school in Yunlin County, Taiwan. The intervention program of treatment, themed “sports appreciation cultivation”, was delivered through recreational camps for badminton and baseball. Each camp, lasting 16 weeks with 17 participants for badminton and 20 participants for baseball in a group per session, covered basic skills and knowledge pertinent to each sport (

Table 1. Number of participants in the experimental and control groups.

	Experimental Groups		Control Group	Total
	Recreational Camp with Spectatorship	Recreational Camp without Spectatorship
Sport Type
Baseball	20	20	20	60
Badminton	17	17	17	51
Gender
Male	23	25	22	70
Female	14	12	15	41
Grade
3rd (9 years old)	5	5	5	15
4th (10 years old)	5	5	5	15
5th (11 years old)	17	17	17	51
6th (12 years old)	10	10	10	30

).

The 90 min activities in the baseball camp included an introduction to baseball rules, catching and throwing, fielding practice, batting exercises, base running drills, and team games. The 90 min activities in the badminton camp included an introduction to badminton rules, grip techniques, serving, hitting, basic footwork, rallying, clear shots, drives, and team games. Because of safety concerns, the baseball camp used tee-balls and soft baseballs. The badminton camp used standard badminton gear in an indoor venue with appropriate flooring.

Additionally, one group received five thematic sessions, each lasting 40–43 min, which focused on “spectatorship and appreciation”. These sessions drew on a framework associated with the values of watching sports [16], covering entertainment, social, self-esteem, and moral values. The content also included comparisons between national and international events and athletes.

Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their parents involved in this study. Ethical review and approval were not required for this study because of its classification as regular pedagogy with minimal risk. The risks faced by participants were not higher than those encountered by non-participants. This classification aligns with a notice (No. 1010265075) issued on 5 July 2012, by the Ministry of Health and Welfare in Taiwan, which outlines the “Scope of Human Research Exempt from Ethical Review” [17,18].

3.3. Measurement

The research instruments included pre- and post-test questionnaires on sports identification and spectatorship willingness. The sports identification scale, drawing from related scales [2,13,14] with some modifications, included items on the importance and enjoyment of sports and self-identification with badminton or baseball. The participation and spectatorship willingness scales, adapted for this study’s objectives [1,2], measured participants’ inclination towards playing and watching sports.

Table 2. All the items on the scales.

Sports Identification Scale	Participation Willingness Scale
I understand baseball (badminton).	I would like to participate in baseball (badminton).
I love baseball (badminton).	I would recommend others to participate in baseball (badminton).
I consider myself a baseball (badminton) person.	I would share my experience of playing baseball (badminton) with others.
Baseball (badminton) is important to me.	If given the chance, I would continue playing baseball (badminton).
Baseball (badminton) is meaningful to me.	Spectatorship Willingness Scale
Baseball (badminton) is valuable to me.	I would like to watch baseball (badminton) games.
Baseball (badminton) brings me joy.	I would recommend others to watch baseball (badminton) games.
I like baseball (badminton).	I would share my experience of watching baseball (badminton) games with others.
	If given the chance, I would continue watching baseball (badminton) games.

lists all the items on the scales. The sports identification scale reflects a deep connection to baseball or badminton, where a person not only understands the sport but also has a strong emotional attachment to it. The individual takes pride in identifying as a “baseball person” or a “badminton person”, as the sport holds significant importance in their life. It is more than just an activity; it is meaningful and valuable, contributing to their sense of identity. Engaging with the sport brings immense joy, and the passion for it becomes a source of happiness. Whether on the field or court, the person finds fulfillment and satisfaction, further reinforcing their genuine love and appreciation for baseball or badminton.

The items for these scales utilized a five-point system to measure levels of agreement or disagreement, where 1 represents “somewhat disagree”, 2 is “neutral”, 3 means “agree”, 4 is “agree very much”, and 5 stands for “strongly agree”. This is an asymmetric response scale. The rationale behind this design is that people generally do not express strong negative opinions, such as disagreeing or strongly disagreeing, about a particular sport. By structuring the scale in this way, it was expected to increase the richness of the data collected.

3.4. Data Analysis

This study employed an experimental design, using pre- and post-questionnaires during the first and last weeks of the 16-week treatment. Paired t-tests were conducted to examine the differences between pre- and post-responses, measuring the effects of the treatment. Additionally, independent t-tests were used to compare the experimental and control groups. Finally, a linear regression analysis was performed on the post-survey data to evaluate the predictive power of factors such as sports identification, sport type, participation intervention, and spectatorship intervention in explaining variance in watching intention.

4. Results and Discussion

Based on the objectives and hypotheses of this study, data were collected through an experimental design and analyzed statistically to quantify the impact of sports participation, identification, spectatorship intervention, and the level of spectatorship across different types of sports (badminton and baseball) on the willingness to watch sports. This section presents the findings. The implications in relation to the proposed hypotheses are also discussed.

4.1. Sample Description

The sample of participants (Table 1) was recruited from the middle and upper grades of elementary school children in central Taiwan at regular recreational camps on campus. Students chose their camps based on their interests. This study’s descriptive statistics analyzed participants from the recreational camps and two control groups, focusing on badminton and baseball. Three badminton groups comprised 51 participants, with subsets for those two experimental groups in the recreational camp as follows: one (17 people) with and the other one (17 people) without spectatorship intervention, and the third group (17 people) as a control group without any camp experience. The baseball group totaled 60 participants, similarly divided among the experimental conditions as follows: one (20 people) with and the other one (20 people) without spectatorship intervention, and a control group (20 people) (Table 1). Participants for both control groups were recruited to match the gender and age of those in the corresponding experimental groups.

4.2. Reliability and Validity Analysis

The reliability of the questionnaires, measured by Cronbach’s Alpha, indicated high internal consistency across both experimental and control groups for sports identification and the willingness to spectate. For sports identification, Cronbach’s Alpha values were 0.903 and 0.805 for the experimental and control groups, respectively, at the pre-test, and 0.903 and 0.754 at the post-test. For the willingness to spectate, reliability scores were similarly high, with 0.895 and 0.847 for the experimental and control groups, respectively, at the pre-test, and 0.878 and 0.816 at the post-test, showcasing the questionnaire’s robustness. All the reliabilities were above the recommended threshold of 0.70 [19,20].

Table 3. Validity analysis.

	Pre-Test				Post-Test
	Construct Validity	Sports Identification	Playing Intention	Watching Intention	Construct Validity	Sports Identification	Playing Intention	Watching Intention
Sports identification	0.90	0.53	0.61	0.21	0.88	0.49	0.55	0.36
Playing intention	0.89	0.78	0.66	0.15	0.87	0.74	0.63	0.46
Watching intention	0.89	0.46	0.39	0.68	0.89	0.60	0.68	0.66

Note: In the grey area, the average variance extracted (AVE) scores are in bold and positioned along the diagonal. The lower-left area contains the correlation coefficients, while the upper-right area displays the corresponding squared correlation coefficients, representing the shared variance.

presents the results of the validity analysis. All measures of construct validity exceed the recommended threshold of 0.70 [21]. For convergent validity, assessed using the average variance extracted (AVE) scores, all values are above 0.50, except for sports identification in the post-test, which recorded 0.49. Regarding discriminant validity, the AVE for each construct should exceed the shared variance with other variables [21]. This requirement is met in all cases, except for sports identification, where the AVE is lower than the shared variances with playing intention in both the pre-test and post-test. In summary, the convergent validity of sports identification is slightly lower than expected, which affects its discriminant validity with playing intention. More attention may be needed for the cognitive item related to understanding baseball or badminton in the sports identification scale, as this item had the lowest standardized loading among the eight items.

4.3. Relationship between Participation and Spectatorship

Pearson correlation coefficient analysis revealed a noticeable strengthening of the link between participation and spectatorship. Initially, this relationship was moderate in the prior survey (0.369, p < 0.001), escalating to a high correlation in the post-survey (0.682, p < 0.001). The primary drivers of this enhancement were the experimental groups, who, after 16 weeks of participation engagement in the camps, saw their correlation rise significantly from an initially non-significant 0.206 to 0.624 (p < 0.001).

Notably, baseball participants reported greater strides in comparison with badminton players. Moreover, within these experimental cohorts, those who received spectatorship intervention exhibited more pronounced improvements than those without such intervention, with baseball again outperforming badminton potentially because of the greater availability of baseball viewing opportunities (that is, high spectatorship level) in real life in Taiwan. These findings suggest that both the participation program and the spectatorship intervention positively influenced the bond between participation and spectatorship. Additionally, these outcomes could suggest that baseball likely provides a more enjoyable experience than badminton in the camp, which led to an increased identification with the sport after the camp with the intervention.

4.4. Factors Influencing Sports Identification

The analysis revealed that participants who were part of the experimental groups, namely, those attending the sports camps, exhibited higher levels of sports identification compared with their counterparts in the control groups. This supports the nomological validity of this study, as these participants were evidently more engaged.

Table 4. Identification, watching, and playing intention among the experimental and control Groups.

Dependent Variable	Sport Type	Experimental Groups				Control Groups
		Prior	After	t Value	p-Value	Prior	After	t Value	p-Value
Sports identification	baseball	3.128	3.474	2.295 *	0.028	2.656	2.569	−1.606	0.125
	badminton	3.224	2.966	−1.478	0.149	2.235	2.544	3.239 *	0.005
Watching intention	baseball	3.032	3.596	2.469 *	0.018	2.263	2.213	−0.418	0.681
	badminton	2.434	2.632	0.954	0.347	1.809	1.765	0.457	0.653
Playing intention	baseball	3.638	3.919	1.891	0.066	2.600	2.600	0.000	1.000
	badminton	3.610	3.250	−1.742	0.091	2.338	2.427	0.765	0.455

Notes: * Indicates significant results with a p-value lower than 0.05. Highlighted yellow indicates significant results. Red t values show unexpected results.

illustrates this with higher mean scores for the experimental groups in both baseball (3.128, 3.474) and badminton (3.224, 2.966) compared with the control groups (2.656, 2.569 for baseball and 2.235, 2.544 for badminton) in both prior and after tests.

When comparing the means via paired sample t-tests, it was evident that the baseball camp attendees who received spectatorship intervention experienced a significant increase in baseball identification, with mean scores rising from 2.981 to 3.506 (p = 0.033, which is less than the threshold of 0.05) (

Table 5. Identification, watching, and playing intention among experimental groups one and two.

Dependent Variable	Sport Type	Experimental Group 1 with Intervention				Experimental Group 2 without Intervention
		Prior	After	t Value	p Value	Prior	After	t Value	p Value
Sports identification	baseball	2.981	3.506	2.302 *	0.033	3.292	3.438	0.779	0.447
	badminton	3.544	3.007	−2.138 *	0.048	2.883	2.922	0.173	0.865
Watching intention	baseball	2.842	4.197	4.312 *	<0.001	3.213	3.025	−0.810	0.428
	badminton	1.956	2.588	2.346 *	0.032	2.912	2.677	−0.819	0.425
Playing intention	baseball	3.613	3.875	1.287	0.214	3.663	3.963	1.352	0.192
	badminton	3.941	3.059	−4.265 *	0.001	3.279	3.441	0.512	0.615

Notes: * Indicates significant results with a p-value lower than 0.05. Highlighted yellow indicates significant results. Red t values show unexpected results.

), particularly for male participants. Contrarily, the badminton participants displayed an inverse effect (refer to Table 4 and Table 5 for detailed results). As their perceived knowledge and experiences of the sport increased from the camp, it seemed that their likelihood to play or identify with badminton decreased. In the experimental group that received the spectatorship intervention, the badminton identification score significantly decreased from 3.544 in the initial test to 3.007 in the post-treatment test after 16 weeks, with a p-value of 0.048 lower than 0.05 (Table 5). Similarly, the intention to play badminton also significantly decreased from 3.941 to 3.059, with a p-value of 0.001, which is below the significance threshold of 0.05 (Table 5).

Several potential reasons could explain why students’ identification with and willingness to participate in badminton decreased after attending the camp, despite weeks of introduction to the sport’s spectatorship value. Firstly, the discrepancy between students’ expectations and their actual experiences might have led to disillusionment with badminton. The method or content of introducing the spectatorship value might not have resonated with the students’ interests, potentially diminishing their enthusiasm. Further, the regression effect [22] might influence the results. Some participants in this group who selected “strongly agree” in the previous survey might tend to respond less strongly in the post-survey.

Additionally, the technical difficulty of badminton could have posed challenges for beginners, lacking adequate support and encouragement, leading to feelings of frustration and isolation. This could suggest that badminton’s complexity as an individual sport may deter continued participation intention and identification, as it might be more challenging to play than initially perceived. Lastly, the coaching style, interaction with students, and instructional design were crucial; if the instructional methods were not engaging or failed to meet individual expectations and needs, students might not have felt satisfied or motivated to continue with the sport.

During this study, an unexpected rise in sports identification was also observed in the badminton control group over the semester from 2.235 to 2.544 (Table 4). This increase may be partly attributed to a regression effect [22]. Some male children in this group who selected “somewhat disagree” in the previous survey might tend to respond “neutral” in the post-survey. The school’s physical education curriculum, which was not managed by this research, might also introduce students to badminton during the same period. These results might suggest that while initially, badminton might be perceived as easy and enjoyable, it became more challenging as one delved more deeply into the sport. There might exist an inverted U-shaped curvilinear relationship of specialization with levels of leisure satisfaction and happiness [15].

4.5. Factors Influencing Watching Intention

Members of the experimental groups, specifically, those enrolled in the sports camps, demonstrated a greater inclination towards playing and watching the sports compared with the individuals in the control groups. This finding reinforces the nomological validity of this research. Additionally, baseball participants showed a stronger desire to watch games than those involved in badminton, aligning with the hypothesis that baseball enjoys a higher level of spectatorship. Moreover, statistical analyses using paired sample t-tests revealed that both baseball and badminton camp participants who underwent spectatorship intervention reported a marked enhancement in their intention to watch, with average scores increasing from 2.842 and 1.956 to 4.197 and 2.588 (Table 5), respectively (p < 0.001 and 0.032, both below the significance level of 0.05).

A linear regression model (Model 1) analysis showed similar results with watching intention as a dependent variable, while the experimental group participants and baseball rather than the control group participants and badminton had a stronger contribution along with a positive and significant regression coefficient of sports identification (

Table 6. Linear regression analysis.

		Standardized Beta Coefficient	t	p
Model 1: Dependent variable = watching intention in post-survey, R2 = 0.477	(constant)		1.726	0.087
	badminton (=0); baseball (=1)	0.262	3.625	<0.000
	control groups (=0); experimental groups (=1)	0.278	3.634	<0.000
	sports identification	0.439	5.627	<0.000
Model 2: Dependent variable = watching intention in post-survey, R2 = 0.426	(constant)		−1.136	0.260
	badminton (=0); baseball (=1)	0.348	3.607	0.001
	no spectatorship intervention (=0); with intervention (=1)	0.256	2.768	0.007
	sports identification	0.385	3.978	0.000

). Another linear regression model (Model 2) analysis showed similar results with watching intention as a dependent variable, while the experimental groups with spectatorship intervention and baseball rather than without intervention groups and badminton had a stronger contribution along with a positive and significant regression coefficient of sports identification (Table 6). These analyses suggested that both being in an experimental group (especially those involving spectatorship interventions) and the type of sport (in this study, baseball versus badminton) were significant predictors of a person’s intention to watch sports. Sports identification also played a crucial role, as it positively influenced this intention, indicating that how much participants identified with a sport affected their willingness to engage as spectators.

4.6. Sports Identification and Playing and Watching Intention

The findings indicated that the desire to play a sport was more strongly connected to sports identification than the intent to watch it. This was evidenced by correlation coefficients of 0.463 and 0.596 for the relationship between sports identification and the intention to watch, which were lower than the coefficients of 0.784 and 0.742 for the relationship between sports identification and the intention to play in the pre- and post-surveys, respectively. This aligns with the convergent and discriminant validity analysis, as the AVE for sports identification (Table 3) was not greater than its shared variance with playing intention.

Additionally, among those attending the baseball camp with spectatorship intervention, there was no significant correlation found between sports identification and the intention to watch. This suggests that an increase in the desire to watch did not proportionally enhance sports identification, particularly among three attendees. Without these three, the relationship coefficient (0.644) became high and significant. Overall, this pattern suggested that while increasing the desire to watch sports could generally strengthen sports identification, the relationship might not be straightforward for everyone. Individual differences and the specific context of engagement might influence how these variables interact.

5. Conclusions

Those who were part of the experimental groups—participants in either baseball or badminton—exhibited higher levels of sports identification and watching intention than non-participants (control group). Baseball participants showed higher watching intention than badminton, indicating that higher spectatorship levels in sports might be necessary to enhance watching intention, a process that can be subtle and requires time to develop. In Taiwan’s context, baseball’s higher spectatorship level contributes to its stronger watching intention, likely because of historical and media influences.

Through experimental design, this study aimed to determine the scenarios in which watching intention can be predicted. The results indicated that both the type of sport and sports identification were significant predictors of watching intention. Baseball, with its higher level of spectatorship, held greater predictive power than badminton. Stronger sports identification corresponded to greater watching intention. Additionally, whether individuals participated in sports was also a significant predictor, with active participants showing a higher predictive power for watching intention than non-participants. For those with sports participation, besides the significant predictive power of sport type and identification, watching experience also significantly predicted watching intention, where those with experience showed greater predictive power.

This study unexpectedly discovered that the badminton control group increased in sports identification but the camp with spectatorship intervention resulted in decreased sports identification and playing intentions among participants. This might meet an inverted U-shape relationship [15] between specialization and identification. This further highlights the necessity for sports programs to better match the interests and abilities of students. This research underscores the importance of designing sports appreciation programs that consider the unique characteristics of each sport and participants’ interests and skill levels. For example, badminton is often played individually and involves less social interaction, which can discourage participants from wanting to continue. Therefore, it is important for programs to consider these characteristics carefully when designing activities in a camp.

Previous cross-sectional data collection studies in the realms of sports participation, identification, and watching intention have less explanatory power compared with the experimental design approach adopted by this study. Prior research has not focused on the spectatorship level of the sport itself. This study, which compared two sports familiar to elementary school children but with differing levels of spectatorship, found significant impacts on watching intention, providing a new perspective in the exploration of sports participation, identification, and watching. This study contributes by offering valuable insights for sports federations and local clubs to foster a culture of sports appreciation among children.

6. Suggestion

Sports federations and local clubs should carefully design programs that build personal connections with the sport, such as meet-and-greet events with athletes, interactive fan experiences, and educational programs that deepen understanding and appreciation for a sport’s nuances. Unexpectedly, one of our research findings indicated that badminton camps with spectatorship intervention caused a decrease in sports identification and playing intention. To enhance the camp experience and foster a deeper connection with badminton, it is recommended that camp managers tailor the curriculum to align more closely with students’ interests and skill levels, ensuring a mix of engaging, supportive, and varied instructional methods. Additionally, incorporating more interactive, participatory, and social elements that highlight the joy and social aspects of badminton could significantly boost students’ enthusiasm and willingness to engage with the sport.

This study focused on baseball and badminton as representative sports with high and low spectatorship levels. Future research could explore other sports with varying spectatorship levels to compare results. This regional study focused on middle- and upper-grade elementary school children. Future researchers could expand the scope to include different subjects and regions, making the research more comprehensive. Data on participants’ height, weight, and BMI may be included to assess whether physiological conditions influence the results. For future research, it is also recommended to conduct program exit interviews to gain direct insights and a more nuanced understanding of participants’ experiences, in addition to using questionnaires for indirect measurement. Without these interviews, any explanation for unexpected results would be purely speculative.