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Article

Basic Chemical Composition, Selected Polyphenolic Profile and Antioxidant Activity in Various Types of Currant (Ribes spp.) Fruits

by
Ewelina Kierońska
,
Joanna Skoczylas
,
Kinga Dziadek
,
Urszula Pomietło
,
Ewa Piątkowska
and
Aneta Kopeć
*
Department of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Kraków, al Mickiewicza 21, 31-121 Kraków, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(19), 8882; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198882
Submission received: 13 August 2024 / Revised: 24 September 2024 / Accepted: 29 September 2024 / Published: 2 October 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical and Functional Properties of Food and Natural Products: 2nd Edition)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Black currants are more popular and consumed more often than red and white ones. These fruits are low in calories, and they are recognised as a rich source of vitamin C. It can be hypothesised that currant fruits, depending on the colour, may differ in the profile of polyphenolic compounds, antioxidant activity and basic composition. The objective of this study was to determine the basic chemical composition, selected polyphenolic compound profile and antioxidant activity of black, red and white currant fruits collected over two years. Red currant fruits had a higher protein content, than black currant fruits, which had the lowest. The highest fat content was found in white currants and the lowest in black currants. The black currant variety was the richest in total carbohydrates. The highest amount of total polyphenols was found in black currant fruits and the lowest in red currant fruits. In all types of currant fruit, catechin was the major phenolic compound. However it showed the highest difference between types of currants. It was observed that red currant fruits had the highest antioxidant activity when tested with the ABTS+ and FRAP methods, and the lowest was found in white currant fruits. The highest antioxidant activity, tested by the FRAP method, occurred in black currant fruits, while the lowest was observed in white currant fruits.

1. Introduction

Fruits are a crucial component of a healthy diet, as they provide numerous nutritious and non-nutritious compounds such as vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, and sterols, which are beneficial to human health [1]. According to the currant recommendations by the World Health Organization (WHO), the daily intake of unprocessed vegetables and fruits should be around 400 g [2]. Currant bushes have been cultivated for centuries, mainly in Europe and some parts of Asia. Black currants were first cultivated in Europe in the seventeenth century, and red currants about 100 years earlier. However, interest in the fruits, particularly black currants, increased only in the early twentieth century when they were discovered to be a rich source of vitamin C. They began to be cultivated on an industrial scale and used in the food industry [3,4]. The red variety was most popular in the Netherlands and Scandinavian countries, while the black variety was more common in Germany, Poland and other Eastern European countries. Fresh black currant fruits are considered the most valuable in terms of their chemical composition, especially anthocyanin content [3,4,5]. White and red currants are less popular, although they are also a source of valuable compounds, including phenolic compounds and vitamin C [4,5,6]. Currants, which have a low calorific value, are a source of nutritious and non-nutritious compounds such as vitamin C, PP, B1, B2, minerals, dietary fibre and phenolic compounds [4,7,8]. The amount of dietary fibre in black, red and white currants is approximately 7.9 g/100 g dry matter, 7.7 g and 6.4 g, respectively [9]. The amount of these compounds depends mainly on climatic conditions, soil type and variety of currant [9,10,11,12,13]. Based on a scientific literature review, not many articles are focused on proximate analysis and bioactive compound content in different types of currant fruits.
Our research compares the basic chemical composition, antioxidant activity and content of selected polyphenolic compounds of red, black and white currants. This may lead to further research into the health properties of these fruits. In the available literature, studies on currants have focused on the analysis of the content of total anthocyanins and their individual compounds, as well as polyphenolic compounds [5]. Some articles have also analysed the juice or other products of these fruits for bioactive compound content [4,14]. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no detailed studies have been carried out on currants from our country. What is more, the basic composition, polyphenolic compound profile and antioxidant activity of all three currant varieties have not been analysed simultaneously in a single study. There are numerous studies on individual varieties of currant [15,16,17], but their results are not compared in a single, comprehensive context. The lack of such analyses limits the understanding of differences and potential synergies between varieties in terms of bioactive components and nutritional value. In our previous studies, we investigated the content of bioactive compounds in the leaves of black, red and white currants. In general, currant leaves are a rich source of bioactive compounds and nutrients. However, the levels of the above compounds depend on the time of harvest. [18].
The objective of this study was to determine the content of bioactive compounds and basic chemical composition of black, red and white currant fruits collected over two years.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material

The research material was black, red and white currant fruits obtained from private crops grown in the Małopolska region of Poland. During the growing period, in both years, plants were not protected by any herbicide, insecticide or pesticide, as was reported previously [18]. The material was collected for two years, i.e., 2018 and 2019, in June (fruit of red currant plants) and July (fruit of white and black currant plants). In Table 1, the average temperature, sum of precipitation and number of rainy days from March until July each year of experiment was reported. The fruits were harvested at the stage of full consumable maturity. The sample size for analysis was about 3 kg. For the analysis, only good-quality fruits were selected.

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Proximate Analysis

Obtained fruits were cleaned with tap water and dried. The dry mass of fresh samples of currant fruits was determined based on the AOAC method [19]. This method consisted of determining the loss of weight after removing water from the product during thermal drying at 105 °C under normal pressure. A Memmert GmbK laboratory dryer (Schwabach, Germany) was used to perform this dry matter determination. Part of samples were frozen by freeze-drying in a lyophiliser (Christ Alpha 1–4. Gefriertrocknungsanlangen. Germany). The basic chemical composition of freeze-dried samples was measured according to the AOAC official method. Shortly afterward, the concentration of protein was determined with the Kjeldahl method (AOAC no. 978.04), crude fat content with the Soxhlet method (AOAC no. 935.38) and ash (AOAC no. 930.05). The total carbohydrate content of dry matter was calculated based on the following formula: total carbohydrates = 100 − (protein + raw fat + ash). In freeze-dried samples, the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity was measured.

2.2.2. Extract Preparation, Antioxidant Capacity and Total Polyphenol Content

About 500 mg of lyophilized grounded samples of each currant fruits were used for the preparation of acidified methanolic extract (70% methanol acidified with 0.1% formic acid v/v, POCh, Katowice, Polska). All samples were extracted by shaking in a laboratory shaker (Elpan, type 357 Lubawa, Poland) for two hours, without light. After 2 h of extraction, samples were centrifuged (centrifuge type MPW-340, Warsaw, Poland). Then obtained samples were kept at −22°C for further analyses, as was previously reported [18].
The total polyphenol content in acidified methanolic extract of currant fruits was measured spectrometrically using Folin–Ciocalteau reagent, at a wavelength of 760 nm using a RayLeigh UV-1800 spectrophotometer (UV-1800 spectrophotometer, Beijing Beifen-Ruili Analytical Instrument Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) [20]. The results are expressed as the chlorogenic acid equivalent (CGA) in mg per 100 g of dry matter (DM).
The antioxidant activity of methanolic extracts of fruits of black, red and white currant fruits was measured by the following methods: with ABTS•+ radical (2,2′-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid); (Sigma Aldrich, Saint Louis, MO, USA) [21]; the FRAP method (ferric-reducing antioxidant power) [22]; and the DPPH•+ radical method (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate); (Sigma Aldrich, Saint Louis, MO, USA) [23] as previously reported [24,25].
The working solution for ABTS•+ analysis was prepared by diluting the ABTS•+ stock solution with 70% methanol (POCh, Katowice, Poland) to achieve an absorbance between 0.740 and 0.750 at 734 nm. A volume of 10–100 μL of the black, red and white currant fruit extract was transferred into a test tube and diluted to 1 mL with 70% methanol (POCh, Katowice, Poland). After mixing the diluted extract with 2 mL of the ABTS•+ working solution, the mixture was kept in the dark at 30 °C for 6 min. The absorbance of the sample was then measured at 734 nm.
For the DPPH• analysis, the working solution was prepared by dissolving 6 mg of DPPH• in 100 mL of methanol (POCh, Katowice, Poland). The stock solution was then diluted with methanol to achieve an absorbance of 0.900–1.000 at 515 nm. A volume of 10–200 μL of the extract was placed in a test tube and diluted to 1.5 mL with methanol. After mixing the diluted extract with 3 mL of the DPPH• solution, the mixture was kept in the dark at room temperature for 10 min. The absorbance of the sample was measured at 515 nm.
The total reducing capability, using the FRAP method, was determined as reported by Benzie and Strain [22]. The extracts (10–200 μL) were placed in a test tube and diluted to 1 mL with 70% methanol (POCh, Katowice, Poland). After combining the diluted extract with 3 mL of the FRAP reagent working solution, the mixture was kept in the dark at room temperature for 10 min. The absorbance of the samples was then measured at 593 nm.
The results obtained for ABTS•+, FRAP and DPPH•+ methods were compared to the concentration–response curve of the standard Trolox dilution, and the results obtained are expressed in μmol Trolox/g DM.

2.2.3. HPLC Analysis of Currant Fruits

For the HPLC analysis of polyphenolic compounds, an acidified methanolic extract of black, red and white currant fruits was used. One gram of the lyophilized sample was extracted using a laboratory shaker (Elpin Plus, type 357 (Lubawa, Poland)) for 2 h at room temperature, protected from light, in 40 mL of 70% methanol (POCh, Katowice, Poland) acidified with 0.1% formic acid (Chempur, Piekary Śląskie, Poland). The samples were then filtered, and the extracts were stored at −20 °C [25]. The HPLC analysis of polyphenols was conducted using Prominence-i LC-2030C 3D Plus system (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with a diode array detector (DAD). The separation was performed on a Luna Omega 5 µm Polar C18, 100 A, 250 × 10 mm column (Phenomenex, CA, USA) at 40 °C. The mobile phase was a mixture of two eluents: A—0,1% formic acid in water (v/v) and B—0.1% formic acid in methanol (v/v). The flow rate of the mobile phase was 1.2 mL/min. The analysis was carried out with the following gradient conditions: from 20% to 40% B in 10 min, 40% B for 10 min, from 40% to 50% B in 10 min, from 50% to 60% B in 5 min, 60% B for 5 min, from 60 to 70% B in 5 min, from 70% to 90% B in 5 min, 90% B for 5 min, from 90% to 20% B (the initial condition) in 1 min and 20% B for 4 min, resulting in a total run time of 60 min. The injection volume was 20 μL.
The detection of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, myricetin, quercetin, luteolin and isorhamnetin was carried out at 254 nm, rutin at 256 nm, vanillic acid at 260 nm, kaempferol at 264 nm, apigenin and acacetin at 267 nm, gallic acid at 271 nm, hispidulin at 273 nm, syringic acid at 274 nm, catechin and epicatechin at 278 nm, naringin and carnosol at 283 nm, hesperidin and carnosic acid at 284 nm, p-coumaric acid at 310 nm, caffeic acid, ferulic acid and sinapinic acid at 323 nm and chlorogenic acid at 326 nm, as well as rosmarinic acid at 329 nm.
Calibration curves were used to quantify polyphenols by the HPLC method. A stock standard solution, with a concentration of 100 mg∙L−1 of each polyphenolic compound, was made in 0.1% formic acid in 70% methanol (v/v) (POCH, Poland). These stock standard solutions were then diluted in 0.1% formic acid in 70% methanol (v/v) to obtain a series of concentrations (1.56, 3.125, 6.25 12.5, 25 mg∙L−1) for the calibration curves. All the solutions were filtered through a 0.22 µm filter prior to analysis. The data were integrated and analysed using the LabSolution software (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan).

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The analyses concerning the basic chemical composition were made in duplicate, while the total phenolic compound concentration and antioxidant activity analyses were carried out in triplicate. The differences between samples are shown as the means ± S.D. One factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out using STATISTICA v. 13.3 (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA). The significance of differences between the means was assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test at p = 0.05.

3. Results

Basic chemical composition was affected by year of harvest. The highest concentration of dry mass was measured in black currant fruits in both years as compared to other samples (Table 2). In 2018, the highest ash content was measured in red currant fruits and in 2019 in red and white currants. The highest level of protein was measured in both years of harvest in red currant fruits. The highest level of crude fat was measured in white currant fruits in both years of harvest. Total carbohydrate levels were higher in black currant fruits in 2018 as compared to other samples. The lowest level of total carbohydrates was calculated in red currant fruits both years of harvest.
The highest content of total polyphenolic compounds was measured in black and red currants in 2019 as compared to other samples. It was found that red currants were characterized by statistically significantly higher ability to scavenge free radicals compared to black and white currants. The antioxidant activity determined by the ABTS•+ method in fruit extracts harvested in 2019 ranged from 1249.8 μmol Trolox/g DM for white currant extracts to 1911.7 μmol Trolox/g DM for red currant extracts (Table 3). The type of currant fruit from 2018 did not affect the ability to extinguish the DPPH•+ free radical. However, in 2019, black and red currants had statistically significantly higher antioxidant activity than white currants (Table 3). The ability to scavenge free radicals determined by the FRAP method in currant fruit extracts from 2018 ranged from 9913 in the white variety to 13,485 μM Trolox/g DM in the black variety. Statistically significantly higher antioxidant activity was characterized in black currants compared to red and white currants. In the fruit extracts from 2019, the black variety had the highest ability to extinguish free radicals, as determined by the FRAP method 9787.3 μmol Trolox/g DM, while the white variety had the lowest—4921 μmol Trolox/g DM. There were significant statistical differences regarding the antioxidant activity of individual currant cultivars.
The black currant fruits were characterized by the highest content of gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapinic acid, rutin, hesperidin, myricetin and quercetin (Table 4). The differences between the mean values were statistically significant at p < 0.05. Among other types of currants, the red currant fruits showed the highest content of vanillic acid, syringic acid, naringin and carnosol. White currant fruits contained the highest amount of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, epicatechin, acacetin and carnosic acid. Additionally, compounds that were not detected in red and black currants were found in these fruits, such as luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, isoharmentil and hispidulin.

4. Discussion

The dry matter content of the currant fruits ranged from 15.04% to 21.1%—that of black currant fruits was 21.1% in 2018 and in 2019—18.6%; that of red currants was 15.7% in 2018 and in 2019—15.4% (Table 2), whereas that of white currants in 2018 16.7% and 17.1% in 2019. The amount of dry matter in plants, including fruits, depends on many factors such as temperature precipitation and humidity, but also on type and the amount of compost applied, which affects the basic chemical composition of fruits [26]. Other factors can also be transport time and conditions during the transport of samples to laboratory [27]. In the case of our samples, this was a short time, and it should not have affected the dry mass content. In addition to the above factors, basic composition could also be influenced by the method of cultivation [28,29]. Most of the studies on the fruits’ chemical composition can be found in the literature on black currant, rather than other varieties. In their 8-year study, Woznicki et al. [30] collected data on the influence of weather conditions and varieties on the content of basic components of black currant fruits. The dry matter content in black currant fruits fluctuated during these years between 17.16% and 19.00%. Higher soluble solid concentrations occurred in years with high summer temperatures and radiation, while anthocyanins concentrations were negatively correlated with summer temperature. The results of this study obtained for black currant are pretty similar to the data published by mentioned above authors. Moreover, the results from 2019 were consistent with those found by Vagiri [31], who reported that black currants cultivated in Balsgård, Sweden contained 18.04% dry matter. The results presented in the work for both red currant from 2018 and 2019 correspond to the values given by Nour et al. [32]. They stated that the amount of dry matter in red currants ranged from 15.12 to 17.54%. However, only the 2019 value is consistent with Vagiri [31] 16.05% and Barney and Fallahi [33] at 14.3%. In white currant, in both seasons, the amount of dry matter was close to the value given by Buchwał and Jurgiel-Małecka [34]. However, in the available scientific literature, red and white currants have not yet been extensively studied.
When analysing the ash content in currant fruit, it should be mentioned that black currants contained 2.9% ash in 2018 and 3.5% in 2019, red currants contained 3.3% ash in 2018 and 4% in 2019, while white currants contained 3% ash in 2018 and 3.9% in 2019. Differences in ash content in currant fruits could result from a different method of cultivation—including fertilization [13,29,35,36]. They could also be caused by using a different variety of currant for the determination, more or less rich in minerals [13,34]. In black currant fruits from 2019, the ash content was consistent with the results reported by Pieszka et al. [37] at 3.49%. The results obtained for red and white currants corresponded to the data published by Iwanow et al. [9]. However, these authors gave different values for black currant. They noted that the ash content was 5.2% in the dry matter of currant fruits.
The difference in the protein content of currants harvested in two years could be due to the different content of this component in individual currant varieties [12]. The results of this study for the protein content in red currants corresponded with the value given by Bakshi [12] 8.7%. The value for white currant placed in the tables prepared by Iwanow et al. [9] was consistent with the protein content obtained in the work for this variety. There are authors who have pointed to different results compared to the values obtained in this work. Lower values for black currants were given by Bakshi [12]—7.5% and Banaś and Korus [35] 7.8% of the dry weight of the sample. Compared to our study the lowest value of the protein content for black currant fruits was obtained by Jeong et al. in their study on the properties and components of black currant fruits 1.28% Jeong [38]. Iwanow et al. [9] gave smaller values for both black currants and red currants, 7.8% and 7%, respectively. In contrast, higher scores for black currants and red currants are presented in a paper by Barney and Fallahi [33]. They showed that the protein content in black currants was 10.8%, and in red, 9.8%.
The fat content of black currants harvested in 2018 was 0.4% in 2019 1.7%, in red in 2018 1.1%, in 2019 2.1% and in white in 2018 2.4% and in 2019 2.7%. Differences in fat content may have been caused by a different amount of this component in different currant varieties [12]. The values for black and red currants from 2018 presented in the paper corresponded with the result given by Barney and Fallahi [33], who indicated that black fruits contained 0.65% fat and red fruits 1.4%. Similar results for red currants were indicated by Bakshi [12] (1.2%) and Iwanow et al. [9] (1.4%). Iwanow et al. [9] also examined the fat content of black currants and white currants, but the results indicated by them were lower than those presented in the work and amounted to 1.1% and 1.4, respectively. Higher values for black currants were given by Bakshi [12] and accounted for 2.2% of the dry matter of currant fruits. The oil derived from black currant seeds is notable for its beneficial composition of fatty acids, which includes a high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and an optimal ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids Bada [39]. The bioactive fatty acid γ-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3n-6), known for its numerous health benefits, is found in limited oils but is present in some black currant cultivars. These specific cultivars can have up to 20% of their total fatty acids as GLA in their seed oils, along with 30% α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3 n-3) and approximately 5% stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3). It also contains important components such as tocopherols, carotenoids and phytosterols, per Golovenki [40].
Black currants are known for their high carbohydrate content. A 100 g serving of black currants provides 14.9 g of carbohydrates, of which 7.9 g come from fibre [9]. They are a source of natural sugar and have a low glycemic index. This means that the carbohydrates in black currants are slowly digested, absorbed and metabolised, causing a lower and slower rise in blood glucose and, therefore insulin levels [41].
Total carbohydrate content in currant fruits was in the range 85.0–91.2%. The results shown in this paper for black currants from 2019 and red and white currants from both seasons are consistent with the values indicated by Iwanow et al. [9]. They showed that the black variety contained 86.1% total carbohydrates, the red 87.3% and the white 88.5%. Similar results for black and red varieties were given by Bakshi [12], 85.3% and 86% respectively. Also Barney and Fallahi [33] reported similar content of carbohydrates in red currants (84.6%).
The highest content of total polyphenolic compounds was measured in black and red currants harvested in 2019 as compared to other samples (Table 3). Differences in polyphenol content may have been caused by various factors. Among them, we distinguish the variety and weather conditions, as well as the method of cultivation [42]. Based on data from the Polish Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, in 2018, the winter months were cold and dry, followed by a very warm or even anomalously warm spring in most parts of Poland, and at the same time, 74% of the 1971–2000 multi-year precipitation norm was recorded. The summer was extremely warm and dry across Poland, with precipitation increasing only in August. In 2019, the winter months (February, March) were much warmer and wetter than in 2018. In 2019, spring was warm and wet in most parts of Poland (110% of the 1971–2000 multiannual precipitation norm). The summer was extremely warm throughout Poland [43,44]. Such weather conditions may have influenced the composition of black currant fruits, including the content of polyphenols and their profile. The variation in results could also result from the different storage time of currant fruits, during which the polyphenol content decreases [45,46,47]. The lower content of polyphenols in currant preparations may have been due to the fact that the composition of these products is not limited to currant fruits. They could be supplemented with ingredients enriching sensory values or other fruits with a lower or higher content of polyphenols in relation to currants. A different amount of polyphenols could also be caused by the sensitivity of these compounds to technological treatment [48]. In the found publications, the content of polyphenols for black, red and white currants was much lower than the results presented in the work. The polyphenol content for black currants was indicated by Gherbi [49] and Gryszczyńska et al. [50] and was respectively 560 mg CGA/100 g DM and 888.5 mg CGA/100 g FM. These authors also reported a value for red currants of 501.6 mg CGA/100 g FM. Chis et al. [51] were investigating six types of forest fruit in this study regarding the content of some bioactive compounds. The parameters were determined in a fresh state and after freezing at −18 °C and −80 °C, respectively. Total phenolic content ranged from 442 in white currants, 937.77 in red currants to 2.385 mg GAE/100g in black currants. In every case, the frozen fruits had a higher total polyphenol content than the fresh ones. Diaconeasa et al. [52] assessed the total phenolic, flavonoid, and anthocyanin content and the antioxidant activity of five commonly consumed commercial berry jams (blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) and black currant (Ribes nigrun) mixture, black currant (Ribes nigrun), cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) and raspberry (Rubus idaeus)) collected from the market. It is understood that the process of making jam, which involves heat treatment, significantly reduces polyphenol content in fruits. The polyphenol content for black currants jam was around 473.9 1 GAE mg/100g FW [52].
Based on the results of our study and those of other authors, black currant fruit is one of the richer sources of polyphenols, and its antioxidant activity is higher than in many other fruits such as apples, pears and even some berries. According to Pérez-Jiménez et al. [53], black chokeberry fruit (1756 mg/100 g fresh weight), elderberry fruit (1359 mg/100 g fresh weight), lowbush blueberry fruit (836 mg/100 g fresh weight) and black currant fruit (758 mg/100 g fresh weight) had the highest content of polyphenolic compounds. Apples (136 mg/100 g fresh weight), plums (377 mg/100 g fresh weight) or pears (17 mg/100 g fresh weight) had a lower content of polyphenolic compounds compared to black currants. Teleszko and Wojdyło et al. [54] showed that the fruits of apple, chokeberry and cranberry grown in Poland contained 9457.59, 7806.51 and 11,095.46 mg/100 g DM of polyphenolic compounds, respectively. Dziadek et al. [25] found that sweet cherry fruits contained polyphenolic compounds in the range of 1744.62–4045.32 mg/100 g DM of chlorogenic acid. These authors also found that it depends not only on the variety but also on the country of origin. Pérez-Jiménez et al. [53] reported that the content of polyphenolic compounds in red currants, was 43 mg/100 g fresh weight. However, although red currants contain about 10 times less anthocyanins (10–20 mg/100 g) and 2–3 times less polyphenols (190–320 mg/100 g) than black currants, their superoxide radical scavenging capacity and in vitro xanthine oxidase inhibition activity are almost as high as in black currant extracts as was reported by Kampuss et al. [45]. In our study we have found that red currants fruit had the highest antioxidant activity measured with ABTS and DPPH method. Probably other bioactive hydrophilicity and lipophilicity substances could give these results.
The antioxidant content of currant fruits is influenced by the variety, storage or degree of ripeness of the fruit [7,12,55]. The reason for the differences in antioxidant activity could be the fact that solvents of different effectiveness were used for extraction [56]. Differences in the ability to scavenge free radicals by currant fruits and their products could result from the presence of additional ingredients in the products. These ingredients could have been characterized by a lower content or lack of antioxidants. which is why the antioxidant activity of the product was lower [47]. The data reported in the literature on the ability to scavenge free radicals determined by the ABTS•+ method are significantly lower than the results of this work. Jakobek et al. [57] analysed black and red currants. For black fruit they obtained a value of 13.15 μmol Trolox/g FM and for those of red colour 44.67 μmol Trolox/g FM. Nawirska et al. [58] for black currant fruits indicated a higher value than the previous author. They reported that the antioxidant activity determined by the ABTS•+ method was 56.88 μmol Trolox/g FM. Sokół-Łętkowska [56] investigated the antioxidant activity of currant tinctures. The result obtained was lower than the value determined for fruit, amounting to 11.52 μmol Trolox/mL.
The results presented by other authors regarding the antioxidant property determined in currant extracts using the DPPH•+ method are much lower than the values given in this work. Jakobek et al. [57], Wojdyło et al. [15] and Stolarzewicz et al. [59] determined the ability to scavenge free radicals in black currant extracts. The values they received varied from our results. Wojdyło et al. [15] gave a value of—29.59 μmol Trolox/g FM. Jakobek et al. [57]—109.89 μmol Trolox/g FM and Stolarzewicz et al. [59]—200.3 μmol Trolox/g FM. These authors also studied this parameter for red currant. Wojdyło et al. [15] obtained the result—21.9 μmol Trolox/g FM, Stolarzewicz et al. [59]–71.3 μmol Trolox/g FM, Jakobek et al. [57]—13.73 μmol Trolox/g FM. Based on literature review the antioxidant activity of currant products are lower than antioxidant activity of fruits. Sokół-Łętkowska [56] investigated the antioxidant activity in black currant tincture. It contained 5.0 μmol Trolox/mL. Czaplicki et al. [60] showed that the antioxidant activity of black currant and grape juice was 7.9 μmol Trolox/mL. Different results for juice were also given by Szajdek et al. [48]. They showed that in unpasteurized juice the antioxidant capacity was 19.84 and pasteurized 18.47 μmol Trolox/mL. Kalisz et al. [55] reported that in black currant nectar the antioxidant content was at the level of 9 μmol Trolox/ml. Szajdek et al. [48] indicated that the antioxidant activity in apple-currant mousse was 74 μmol Trolox/g DM.
Own research shows that the antioxidant activity of black currant extracts determined by the FRAP method was in the range 4921–13,485 Trolox/g DM. The literature presents varied values for antioxidant activity determined by the FRAP method. Wojdyło et al. [15] and Barney and Hummer [61] determined the antioxidant activity for black currant (in fresh material) in value 48.63 μmol Trolox/g FM and 107.8 μmol Trolox/g FM respectively. Wojdyło et al. [15] also examined the antioxidant activity of red currant and obtained the result—33.8 μmol Trolox/g FM. Sokół-Łętkowska [56] determined the ability to scavenge free radicals for black currant tincture. It was 10.5 μmol Trolox/ml. Mirończuk-Chodakowska et al. [47] analysed the antioxidant activity of low-sugar and high-sugar black currant jam. It was 20 μmol Trolox/ml and 19 μmol Trolox/ml, respectively.
Based on our results on antioxidant activity and concentration of selected polyphenolic compounds in currant fruits, it can be suggested that catechins, sinapinic acid, ruthin and hesperidin are the major compounds that influenced the antioxidant activity. However, further studies are needed. However in some samples high content of total polyphenolic compounds measured with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent but it was not connected with antioxidant activity. It is well known that mentioned above reagent can react with other non-polyphenolic substances, which can affect the results [62].
Based on the literature review it can be suggested that the black currant fruit has lower antioxidant activity then chokeberry and cranberry and higher that apple [54]. Also Haytowitz and Bhagwat [46] reported that apples of the Gala variety had a lower antioxidant potential than red currants (2828 µmol Trolox/100 g FM), with a polyphenol content of 262 mg GAE/100 g FM. Pears showed an even lower antioxidant potential (2201 µmol Trolox/100 g FM) with a polyphenol content of 178 mg GAE/100 g FM. Black chokeberry has the highest antioxidant potential among berries—16,062 µmol Trolox/100 g FM. Conversely, sweet cherry fruits of Polish origin had lower antioxidant activity on fruit measured by ABTS, FRAP or DPPH methods. Compared to examined currants in our study [25].
Fruits are a rich source of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, which have been associated with various health benefits [2,36]. Several studies have investigated the polyphenol content of black, red and white currants. One study analysed the polyphenol content of black, red and white currants. The authors found that black currants had the highest total phenolic content, followed by red currants and then white currants [63]. In another study anthocyanins, a type of polyphenol, were the most abundant in black currants, while flavonols were the most abundant in red and white currants [5]. Määttä et al. [5] found that the highest contents of anthocyanins (3.011 mg/kg fresh weight, expressed as the aglycon) and flavonol glycosides (100 mg/kg) were found in black currants. The lack of anthocyanins in the colorless (green, white) berries was associated with increased levels of phenolic acids, especially p-coumaric acid (80 mg/kg in green currants vs. 45 mg/kg in black currants). These results are lower than those shown in this paper. Black, red and white currants are rich sources of various polyphenolic compounds, including gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin, epicatechin and others. According to few authors black currants contains p-coumaric, ferulic and caffeic acid, myricetin, quercetin, isorhamnetin and kaempferol, which corresponds with this study [64,65]. Red currants contains caffeoyl and p-coumaroyl, rutin, catechin and epigallocatechin Gavriloa [66]. It is well known that black currants have the highest content of polyphenols, particularly anthocyanins, which give them their characteristic deep purple color [65]. Red currants also have a significant amount of polyphenols, including anthocyanins, flavonols and hydroxycinnamic acids. However, their content is lower than that of black currants. White currants have the lowest content of polyphenols among the three varieties, with a higher concentration of flavonols and hydroxycinnamic acids compared to anthocyanins. The amount of polyphenols in all three varieties of currants varies depending on factors such as growing conditions, harvest time and post-harvest processing [51]. Overall, currants are a valuable source of polyphenolic compounds with potential health benefits, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

5. Conclusions

The type of currant was found to have a statistically significant effect on the proximate composition and polyphenols, including phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity. White currants were the best sources of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, epicatechin and carnosic acid, while black catechin, sinapinic acid, rutin and hesperidin. The composition of phenolic compounds affected the antioxidant activity. In the future, research can be focused on the detection and evaluation of specific compounds in white currants that may have biological significance in small quantities. All types of fruit should be consumed more often.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization. A.K., E.P. methodology. A.K., J.S., K.D.; formal analysis. E.P., A.K.; investigation.; E.K., K.D., J.S., data curation. E.K., K.D., U.P., J.S.; writing—original draft preparation. E.K., A.K., J.S., U.P.; writing—review and editing. U.P., A.K.; funding acquisition. A.K., E.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The study was financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland for University of Agriculture in Kraków, Poland.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available on request to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Average monthly air temperature, total precipitation and number of days with precipitation during the experiment.
Table 1. Average monthly air temperature, total precipitation and number of days with precipitation during the experiment.
YearParametersMonth
MarchAprilMayJuneJuly
2018Temp. *0.613.817.118.919.9
Total precipitation **19106972142
No. of days with precipitation201091213
2019Temp. *6.210.012.422.319.3
Total precipitation **23.972.71254.274.7
No. of days with precipitation171422718
* temp.—average monthly air temperature [°C]; ** total precipitation [mm].
Table 2. Basic chemical composition of black, red and white fruits of currants.
Table 2. Basic chemical composition of black, red and white fruits of currants.
Type of CurrantDry Matter *Ash **Protein **Fat **Total Carbohydrates **
2018
Black21.1 ± 0.33 F2.9 ± 0.04 A5.5 ± 0.06 A0.4 ± 0.01 A91.2 ± 1.13 D
Red15.7 ± 0.26 A3.3 ± 0.04 C8.5 ± 0.00 E1.1 ± 0.01 B87.1 ± 0.75 B
White16.7 ± 0.1 8C3.0 ± 0.01 B6.3 ± 0.72 D2.4 ± 0.05 E88.83 ± 0.51 C
2019
Black18.6 ± 0.20 E3.5 ± 0.07 D6.0 ± 0.15 C1.7 ± 0.07 C88.8 ± 0.15 C
Red15.4 ± 0.73 A4.0 ± 0.06 E8.9 ± 0.26 F2.1 ± 0.10 D85.0 ± 0.42 A
White17.1 ± 0.51 D3.9 ± 0.03 E5.7 ± 0.10 B2.7 ± 0.11 F87.7 ± 0.31 B
** Means with at least same letter in columns not differ statistically at p = 0.05. * g/100 g FM (fresh matter); ** g/100 g DM (dry matter).
Table 3. Total phenolic compound content and antioxidant activity of various currant fruits.
Table 3. Total phenolic compound content and antioxidant activity of various currant fruits.
TypeTotal Phenolic Compounds [mg CGA/100 g DM]ABTS•+
[µmol Trolox/g DM]		DPPH•+
[µmol Trolox/g DM]		FRAP
[µmol Trolox/g DM]
2018
Black7776 ± 222 A785.8 ± 41.9 A2970.8 ± 90.54 BC13,485 ± 159 D
Red7367 ± 250 A4259.6 ± 314.7 D3279.9 ± 336.07 C13,421 ± 37 D
White8893 ± 164 A1186.0 ± 55.8b AB3141.3 ± 308.85 BC9913 ± 58 C
2019
Black12,877 ± 250 B1464.7 ± 407.50 B2815.9 ± 183.16 B9787 ± 279 C
Red12,006 ± 711 B1911.7 ± 312.18 C2939.7 ± 135.76 BC8339 ± 43 B
White8201 ± 493 bA1249.8 ± 96.06 aB1619.9 ± 132.60 A4921 ± 35 A
Means with at least same letter in columns do not differ statistically at p = 0.05.
Table 4. Different phenolic compound contents of various currant fruits from 2019 [mg/100 g DM].
Table 4. Different phenolic compound contents of various currant fruits from 2019 [mg/100 g DM].
CompoundWhite CurrantRed CurrantBlack Currant
Gallic acid38.90 ± 0.30 B16.84 ± 0.11 A62.23 ± 0.18 C
Catechin187.68 ± 1.13 A266.61 ± 1.32 B319.61 ± 1.57 C
Chlorogenic acid1.03 ± 0.09 A1.29 ± 0.09 A2.91 ± 0.08 B
4 hydroxybenzoic acid41.89 ± 0.20 C34.54 ± 0.06 B13.81 ± 0.01 A
Epicatechin144.27 ± 0.37 C122.65 ± 5.82 B32.63 ± 0.00 A
Caffeic acid6.56 ± 0.02 A6.92 ± 0.02 A24.02 ± 0.02 B
Vanillic acid21.16 ± 0.02 B23.27 ± 0.38 C16.50 ± 0.01 A
Syringic acid1.12 ± 0.04 A2.71 ± 0.23 B1.00 ± 0.01 A
p-coumaric acid15.08 ± 0.03 A16.65 ± 0.20 B19.08 ± 0.02 C
Ferulic acid3.14 ± 0.02 B2.86 ± 0.00 A12.88 ± 0.02 C
Sinapinic acid74.70 ± 0.33 B64.05 ± 0.70 A98.43 ± 0.31 C
Naringin3.17 ± 0.01 A4.78 ± 0.02 B4.60 ± 0.45 B
Rutin16.77 ± 0.60 A21.91 ± 0.06 B30.90 ± 0.21 C
Hesperidin17.26 ± 0.07 B5.16 ± 0.06 A26.51 ± 1.02 C
Myricetine3.59 ± 0.01 A4.69 ± 0.00 B10.37 ± 0.02 C
QuercetinND *ND *2.02 ± 0.01 B
Luteolin1.86 ± 0.09 BND *ND *
Kaempferol1.87 ± 0.12 BND *ND *
Apigenin1.12 ± 0.02 BND *ND *
Isoharmentil1.75 ± 0.10 BND *ND *
Hispidulin1.37 ± 0.04 BND *ND *
Acacetin1.23 ± 0.03 B1.06 ± 0.02 A1.08 ± 0.02 A
Carnosol4.49 ± 0.03 A5.46 ± 0.14 C5.14 ± 0.01 B
Carnosic acid10.97 ± 1.02 B6.40 ± 0.05 A7.72 ± 0.25 A
Rows with the same letter do not differ statistically at p = 0.05; * ND-not detected.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Kierońska, E.; Skoczylas, J.; Dziadek, K.; Pomietło, U.; Piątkowska, E.; Kopeć, A. Basic Chemical Composition, Selected Polyphenolic Profile and Antioxidant Activity in Various Types of Currant (Ribes spp.) Fruits. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 8882. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198882

AMA Style

Kierońska E, Skoczylas J, Dziadek K, Pomietło U, Piątkowska E, Kopeć A. Basic Chemical Composition, Selected Polyphenolic Profile and Antioxidant Activity in Various Types of Currant (Ribes spp.) Fruits. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(19):8882. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198882

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kierońska, Ewelina, Joanna Skoczylas, Kinga Dziadek, Urszula Pomietło, Ewa Piątkowska, and Aneta Kopeć. 2024. "Basic Chemical Composition, Selected Polyphenolic Profile and Antioxidant Activity in Various Types of Currant (Ribes spp.) Fruits" Applied Sciences 14, no. 19: 8882. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198882

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