Advances in the Study of Bioactive Compounds and Nutraceutical Properties of Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum L.)

Abstract

This review examines the nutritional composition, bioactive compounds, and potential health benefits of goji berries (Lycium barbarum L.). Goji berries contain significant amounts of carbohydrates (46–87% dry weight), proteins (5.3–14.3% dry weight), and dietary fiber (3.63–16 g/100 g fresh weight). They are rich in micronutrients, including vitamin C (2.39–48.94 mg/100 g fresh weight) and potassium (434–1460 mg/100 g fresh weight). The berries’ unique polysaccharides, particularly Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs), exhibit molecular weights ranging from 10 to 2300 kDa. Flavonoids, such as quercetin and rutin (1.0–1.3 mg/g dry weight), and carotenoids, especially zeaxanthin (0.5–1.2 mg/g dry weight), contribute to the berries’ antioxidant properties. In vitro and animal studies have demonstrated various health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects. However, more human clinical trials are needed to confirm these findings. The review also highlights the impact of geographical origin, cultivation practices, and processing methods on nutrient composition, emphasizing the need for standardization in research and commercial applications. Future research should focus on the bioavailability, metabolism, and potential synergistic effects of goji berry compounds.

1. Introduction

Lycium barbarum L., commonly known as goji berry or wolfberry, has emerged as a prominent “superfood” in recent years, captivating the attention of both consumers and researchers alike [1]. This small, bright red fruit (Figure 1), native to Asia, has a rich history deeply rooted in traditional Chinese medicine and culinary practices. For centuries, goji berries have been valued for their perceived health-promoting properties, used to enhance vitality, strengthen the immune system, and promote longevity [2]. The goji plant is a deciduous woody shrub belonging to the Solanaceae family. It typically grows 1–3 m tall, with slender branches adorned with small, light green leaves. The berries themselves are ellipsoid in shape, measuring 1–2 cm in length, and possess a distinctive sweet and slightly tangy flavor. While traditionally cultivated in regions of China, such as Ningxia, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia, goji berry cultivation has expanded globally in recent decades [3], with production now occurring in various countries across Europe, North America, and other parts of Asia. To conduct this comprehensive review, we performed an extensive literature search across multiple scientific databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, covering publications from 2000 to 2024. Our initial search using keywords such as “Lycium barbarum”, “goji berry” and “wolfberry” yielded approximately 3200 articles. After removing the duplicates, we identified 1850 unique publications. These were then screened based on specific inclusion criteria: (1) peer-reviewed articles published in English; (2) original research papers, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses; (3) studies focusing on chemical composition, biological activities, or health benefits of goji berries; and (4) research employing validated analytical methods or well-designed experimental protocols. Articles were excluded if they were conference abstracts, non-peer-reviewed publications, or studies with insufficient methodological details. Following this screening process, 425 articles were selected for detailed review, with 103 key papers ultimately being included in this comprehensive analysis. Priority was given to recent publications and studies that provided novel insights into the biochemical composition, therapeutic potential, or industrial applications of goji berries.

The historical significance of goji berries in traditional Chinese medicine cannot be overstated. Ancient texts dating back over 2000 years mention the use of goji berries for various medicinal purposes. They were believed to nourish the liver and kidneys, improve eyesight, and boost overall well-being [4]. In traditional practices, goji berries were often consumed as a tonic, brewed into teas, or incorporated into herbal formulations. This long-standing cultural belief in the health benefits of goji berries laid the foundation for the modern scientific exploration of their potential therapeutic properties [5]. In recent years, there has been a remarkable surge in the popularity of goji berries in Western countries. This newfound interest can be attributed to several factors, including the growing consumer demand for natural and plant-based products, increased awareness of the potential health benefits of antioxidant-rich foods, and the global trend toward exploring traditional and exotic superfoods [6]. The marketing of goji berries as a nutrient-dense superfood has further fueled their popularity, leading to their incorporation into various products, from dietary supplements to functional foods and beverages.

The transition of goji berries from a traditional medicinal ingredient to a globally recognized superfood has sparked intense scientific interest in understanding their nutritional composition and potential health benefits [7]. Researchers have begun to unravel the complex array of bioactive compounds present in goji berries, including polysaccharides, flavonoids, carotenoids, and other phytochemicals. These investigations have aimed to provide a scientific basis for the traditional uses of goji berries and to explore new potential applications in nutrition, medicine, and the food industry [8]. The nutritional profile of goji berries is particularly impressive, boasting a rich array of essential nutrients. They are an excellent source of vitamins, particularly vitamin C, as well as minerals like iron and zinc [9]. The presence of essential amino acids and fatty acids further contributes to their nutritional value. However, it is the unique composition of bioactive compounds that has garnered the most scientific attention. The polysaccharides found in goji berries, often referred to as Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs), have been the subject of extensive research due to their potential immunomodulatory and antioxidant properties [10].

The growing body of scientific literature on goji berries encompasses a wide range of studies, from in vitro experiments to animal models and human clinical trials. These studies have investigated various potential health benefits, including antioxidant effects, anti-inflammatory properties, immune system modulation, neuroprotection, and potential anticancer activities [11]. While many of these studies show promising results, there is a need for more rigorous, large-scale clinical trials to conclusively establish the efficacy of goji berries in human health [12]. The increasing popularity of goji berries has also led to significant developments in the food and nutraceutical industries [13]. Goji berries are now incorporated into a diverse array of products, including juices, snack foods, yogurts, and dietary supplements [14]. This has prompted research into optimal processing and preservation techniques to maintain the nutritional integrity of goji berries in various product formulations [15]. Additionally, there is growing interest in exploring the potential of goji berry extracts in cosmetic applications, further expanding the commercial reach of this versatile fruit [16].

Despite the considerable advances in goji berry research, several challenges and opportunities remain. There is a need for standardization in the analysis of bioactive compounds and the evaluation of health claims. The impact of cultivation practices, geographical origin, and processing methods on the nutritional and phytochemical profile of goji berries also warrants further investigation [17]. Moreover, as consumer interest in natural and functional foods continues to grow, there is potential for the development of novel goji berry-based products that cater to specific health needs or dietary preferences. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the bioactive compounds and nutraceutical properties of goji berries. By examining the nutritional composition, phytochemical profile, potential health benefits, and industrial applications of goji berries, we seek to highlight the advances made in this field and identify areas for future research. Through this exploration, we hope to contribute to the growing body of scientific literature on this intriguing superfood and provide insights that may guide future investigations and product development in the realm of functional foods and nutraceuticals.

2. Nutritional Composition of Goji Berry

The nutritional profile of goji berries has been the subject of extensive research due to their reputation as a nutrient-dense superfood. Understanding the macronutrient and micronutrient composition of these berries is crucial for evaluating their potential health benefits and applications in functional foods and nutraceuticals. As illustrated in Figure 2, goji berries contain a diverse array of nutrients, with carbohydrates being the predominant macronutrient. The circular representation highlights the relative proportions and ranges of key nutritional components, demonstrating the berry’s value as a nutrient-dense food. These values can vary significantly based on factors such as growing conditions, ripeness, and processing methods, as discussed in detail in the following sections.

Macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats). Carbohydrates constitute the primary macronutrient in goji berries, accounting for a significant portion of their dry weight. The carbohydrate content in goji berries typically ranges from 46% to 87% of the dry weight, depending on various factors such as ripeness, drying methods, and analytical techniques employed [18]. These carbohydrates are present in various forms, including simple sugars and complex polysaccharides. The simple sugars in goji berries primarily consist of glucose and fructose, with smaller amounts of sucrose. These sugars contribute to the sweet taste of the berries and provide a readily available source of energy. The glucose content in goji berries has been reported to range from 14.4 to 17.32 g per 100 g of dry weight, while the fructose levels vary between 12.7 and 21.71 g per 100 g of dry weight [19]. The presence of these monosaccharides makes goji berries a quick source of energy, which may contribute to their traditional use as a revitalizing tonic. However, it is the complex polysaccharides that have garnered significant scientific interest. LBPs are a group of water-soluble glycoconjugates that have been extensively studied for their potential bioactive properties. These polysaccharides typically have a molecular weight ranging from 10 to 2300 kDa and are composed of various monosaccharides, including arabinose, glucose, galactose, mannose, rhamnose, and xylose [20]. The unique structural characteristics of LBPs are believed to contribute to many of the reported health benefits of goji berries.

Proteins, while present in lower quantities compared to carbohydrates, still constitute a significant portion of the goji berry’s nutritional profile. The protein content in goji berries typically ranges from 5.3% to 14.3% of the dry weight. This protein content is notable for a fruit and contributes to the satiating properties of goji berries [21]. The amino acid profile of goji berries is particularly interesting, as they contain all eight essential amino acids. This makes goji berries a valuable plant-based protein source, especially for vegetarian and vegan diets.

The fat content in goji berries is relatively low, generally ranging from 0.39% to 4.1% of the dry weight [21]. Despite the low total fat content, the fatty acid profile of goji berries is noteworthy. The predominant fatty acids found in goji berries are polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid (omega-6), which typically accounts for 37.89% to 53.4% of the total fatty acids [22]. Oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid, is also present in significant amounts, ranging from 16.5% to 23.6% of total fatty acids. The presence of these essential fatty acids, albeit in small quantities, contributes to the overall nutritional value of goji berries.

Micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Goji berries are renowned for their rich micronutrient content, particularly their high levels of certain vitamins and minerals. This micronutrient profile contributes significantly to the berries’ reputation as a nutritional powerhouse and their potential health-promoting properties. Vitamins are present in substantial amounts in goji berries, with vitamin C being one of the most notable. The vitamin C content in goji berries can range from 2.39 to 48.94 mg per 100 g of fresh weight, which is comparable to or higher than many citrus fruits [23]. This high vitamin C content contributes to the berries’ antioxidant properties and their potential immune-boosting effects. Additionally, goji berries contain significant amounts of vitamin A precursors, particularly zeaxanthin and β-carotene [24]. These carotenoids not only contribute to the berries’ characteristic red-orange color but also play crucial roles in eye health and overall antioxidant status. Other vitamins found in goji berries include various B vitamins, such as thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), and niacin (B3). While present in smaller quantities, these B vitamins contribute to the overall nutritional value of the berries and play essential roles in energy metabolism and cellular function.

The mineral content of goji berries is equally impressive, with potassium being the most abundant mineral [25]. Potassium levels in goji berries have been reported to range from 434 to 1460 mg per 100 g of fresh weight, making them an excellent source of this essential mineral crucial for maintaining proper fluid balance and nerve function. Calcium is another significant mineral found in goji berries, with levels ranging from 29 to 60 mg per 100 g of fresh weight. This calcium content, while not as high as dairy products, still contributes to the overall calcium intake and may be particularly beneficial in plant-based diets. Iron is present in notable quantities in goji berries, with levels reported around 5.4 mg per 100 g of fresh weight. This iron content is particularly significant given that iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies worldwide. The presence of vitamin C in goji berries may enhance iron absorption, potentially making the iron in goji berries more bioavailable. Other minerals found in significant amounts in goji berries include zinc, selenium, and phosphorus. Zinc, present at about 1.5 mg per 100 g of fresh weight, is essential for immune function and wound healing. Selenium, while present in smaller quantities, is a crucial component of antioxidant enzymes. Phosphorus, found at levels around 232 mg per 100 g of fresh weight, plays vital roles in bone health and energy metabolism.

Dietary fiber content. The dietary fiber content of goji berries is another notable aspect of their nutritional profile. Dietary fiber plays crucial roles in digestive health, blood sugar regulation, and maintaining a healthy gut microbiome [18]. The total dietary fiber content in goji berries typically ranges from 3.63 to 16 g per 100 g of fresh weight, which is considerable for a fruit. The fiber in goji berries consists of both soluble and insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber, which dissolves in water to form a gel-like substance, has been reported to range from 0.90 to 5.5 g per 100 g of dry weight in goji berries. This type of fiber is known for its ability to lower cholesterol levels and help regulate blood sugar. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, is present in higher amounts, ranging from 2.73 to 11.7 g per 100 g of dry weight [23]. Insoluble fiber aids in digestion by adding bulk to stools and promoting regular bowel movements. The presence of both types of fiber in goji berries contributes to their potential prebiotic effects [26]. Prebiotics are non-digestible food components that selectively stimulate the growth or activity of beneficial gut bacteria. The fiber in goji berries may serve as a substrate for these beneficial bacteria, potentially contributing to improved gut health and overall well-being.

Variation in nutritional composition due to geographical origin and cultivation practices. While the nutritional profile of goji berries is generally impressive, it is important to note that significant variations can occur based on geographical origin, cultivation practices, and processing methods. These variations can affect both the macronutrient and micronutrient compositions of the berries, as well as their content of bioactive compounds. Geographical origin plays a significant role in determining the nutritional composition of goji berries. For instance, Bondia-Pons et al. [27] analyzed Goji berries from Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, and Xizang using non-targeted LC-qTOF-MS metabolite profiling. The Inner Mongolia goji berries were characterized by significantly higher levels of several flavonol glycosides, including quercetin and kaempferol glycosides, as well as isomers of dicaffeoylquinic acid and phenolic acids such as coumaric acid. These compounds were the most discriminative metabolites for the Mongolian variety, which also appeared as the most distinct group in the PCA analysis. Chinese goji berries, on the other hand, were found to contain higher levels of citric acid, chlorogenic acid isomers, and N-hydroxy-L-tyrosine (Figure 3). In our previous study [28], the electrochemical behavior of 2-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl) ascorbic acid, a vitamin C analog, was investigated using a glassy carbon electrode. The study established an analytical method for detecting 2-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl) ascorbic acid based on its electrochemical oxidation signal. This method allowed for linear detection in the range of 100 nM to 300 μM, with a detection limit of 30 nM (S/N = 3), demonstrating higher sensitivity compared to previously reported HPLC methods. The oxidation potential of 2-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl) ascorbic acid was found to be 0.84 V, significantly higher than that of ascorbic acid, indicating its greater stability. The study also revealed that the oxidation process was controlled by diffusion, with the current increasing proportionally with the scan rate. The results suggested that 2-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl) ascorbic acid could serve as a reliable indicator for the quality of goji extracts. Additionally, a pesticide compound, acetamiprid, was detected predominantly in the Chinese goji berry extracts, highlighting a unique aspect of their chemical profile. Tibetan goji berries exhibited variability between the two regions studied. The Tibetan T1 variety was characterized by metabolites such as acetyl tryptophan, 10-deoxygeniposidic acid, and ferulic acid hexose. The Tibetan T2 variety, meanwhile, contained late eluting compounds like myristic acid and other low-molecular-weight short-chain fatty acids. Our previous study explored the feasibility of using electrochemical fingerprinting techniques to identify the geographical origin of goji [29]. We collected samples from various locations and different varieties, including Ningqi-1 and Ningqi-7. They recorded electrochemical fingerprints using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) in two buffer solutions, phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and acetate buffer saline (ABS). The results showed that while the electrochemical behaviors of a single variety grown in different regions were similar due to genetic control, subtle differences in the fingerprints allowed for geographical differentiation. For instance, the Ningqi-7 samples from Qinghai Province exhibited higher electrochemical responses, indicating a greater accumulation of electrochemically active substances compared to samples from other regions. Specific data revealed that the oxidation peaks for Ningqi-7 in PBS appeared at approximately 0.4 V and 0.8 V, while in ABS, peaks were observed at 0.3 V, 0.6 V, and 0.85 V. This method demonstrated potential as an efficient and cost-effective tool for ensuring the quality and traceability of herbal medicines. The research by Fatchurrahman et al. [30] suggests that storage at 0–5 °C is optimal for preserving key nutrients, with 5 °C showing the best balance for maintaining soluble solid content while preserving antioxidant compounds. For drying processes, which are crucial as most commercial goji products are sold dried, gentle dehydration at temperatures not exceeding 60 °C appears optimal for preserving heat-sensitive compounds like vitamin C and polyphenols. Low-temperature vacuum drying has shown superior results in maintaining the zeaxanthin content compared to traditional sun-drying or hot-air drying methods. For extraction of bioactive compounds, ultrasound-assisted extraction at 40 °C for 30 min has demonstrated optimal yields of polysaccharides while preserving their structural integrity. When producing goji-based beverages, cold-pressing followed by flash pasteurization (85 °C for 15 s) appears to be the best compromise between ensuring food safety and maintaining bioactive compounds. These processing parameters should be carefully controlled to ensure the final products retain the highest possible nutritional value while meeting food safety requirements.

Cultivation practices also significantly influence the nutritional profile of goji berries. For example, Kosińska-Cagnazzo et al. [31] focused on six goji berry cultivars: ‘Big Lifeberry’, ‘Number One’, ‘Red Life’, ‘Sweet Lifeberry’, ‘Tibet’, and a local individual termed ‘Saxon’. The findings revealed significant differences in the total soluble solids (TSS), sugar content, carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant capacity among the cultivars. For instance, ‘Number One’ exhibited the highest TSS value at 24.9° Brix, indicating a higher concentration of soluble solids compared to ‘Tibet’, which had the lowest TSS value at 11.9° Brix. This higher TSS in ‘Number One’ was mirrored by its elevated glucose and fructose contents, with values of 239.6 mg/g and 232.2 mg/g dry weight (dw), respectively. Conversely, ‘Tibet’ had the lowest glucose and fructose contents, at 19.2 mg/g and 41.5 mg/g dw, respectively. The carotenoid analysis showed that zeaxanthin dipalmitate was the predominant carotenoid across all cultivars, but its concentration varied significantly. ‘Big Lifeberry’ had the highest zeaxanthin dipalmitate content at 3.162 mg/g dw, while ‘Sweet Lifeberry’ had the lowest at 0.666 mg/g dw. Additionally, ‘Number One’ and Saxon were noted for their high levels of phenolic compounds, such as rutin, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and p-coumaric acid, with ‘Number One’ having the highest overall phenolic content. The antioxidant capacity, measured by total phenolic content (TPC), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), also varied. ‘Number One’ and Saxon exhibited the highest antioxidant capacities, with TPC values of 2.94 mg GAE/g dw and 2.07 mg GAE/g dw, respectively. ‘Tibet’ had the lowest antioxidant capacity, with a TPC value of 0.71 mg GAE/g dw.

Post-harvest processing methods, particularly drying techniques, can also impact the nutritional composition of goji berries. Most commercially available goji berries are sold in dried form, and the drying process can affect both nutrient content and bioavailability. For example, Fatchurrahman et al. [30] revealed significant changes in several key nutritional attributes, including the soluble solid content (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), vitamin C content, total polyphenol content, and antioxidant activity in goji berry stored at different temperatures. The SSC of goji berries showed a slight decrease during storage, with the most significant reduction observed at 7 °C, where it dropped to 22.3% after 12 days. In contrast, berries stored at 0 °C and 5 °C maintained closer values to the initial SSC, indicating better preservation of sugars at these lower temperatures. The TA also decreased over time, particularly at 0 °C, where it fell to about 0.56%, compared to 0.62% at 5 °C and 7 °C. This reduction at 0 °C could be attributed to the loss of organic acids due to chilling stress. Consequently, the SSC/TA ratio was highest for fruits stored at 0 °C (41.6) compared to those stored at 5 °C (38.2) and 7 °C (36.2). The vitamin C content was 0.408 g/kg fresh weight (f.w.), which decreased significantly across all temperatures. After 12 days, the vitamin C content was lowest in fruits stored at 7 °C (0.142 g/kg f.w.), followed by those stored at 5 °C (0.175 g/kg f.w.) and 0 °C (0.163 g/kg f.w.). The higher temperatures likely accelerated the oxidation of ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid, as indicated by the increased levels of dehydroascorbic acid at 7 °C. The total polyphenol content also varied with storage temperature. After 12 days, berries stored at 0 °C had the highest total polyphenol content (2.55 g/kg) compared to those stored at 5 °C (2.25 g/kg) and 7 °C (2.13 g/kg). The lower polyphenol levels at higher temperatures might be due to increased oxidation rates. Antioxidant activity was highest in fruits stored at 7 °C (3.216 g Trolox/kg), followed by 5 °C (2.971 g Trolox/kg) and 0 °C (2.746 g Trolox/kg). This trend suggests that higher storage temperatures may help preserve certain antioxidant compounds like zeaxanthin and β-carotene, which contribute to the overall antioxidant capacity of goji berries.

The variation in nutrient composition due to these factors underscores the importance of standardization in goji berry production and processing. It also highlights the need for careful sourcing and quality control in the production of goji berry-based products to ensure consistent nutritional value.

Comparison with other superfoods. To better understand the relative potency of goji berries’ bioactive properties, it is valuable to compare the findings of goji berries with other well-documented superfoods [32]. The total phenolic content in goji berries (46–87% dry weight) shows comparable levels to established adaptogenic plants like Uncaria rhynchophylla (327.78 mg GAE/g) and Polygonum multiflorum (314.60 mg GAE/g) [33]. The observed antioxidant activities for goji berries align with those reported for various adaptogens, particularly in DPPH’s radical scavenging capacity, where Polygonum multiflorum exhibits similar potency. Interestingly, while goji berries contain notable flavonoid levels (1.0–1.3 mg/g dry weight), these concentrations are lower than those found in some adaptogenic plants such as Uncaria rhynchophylla (230.13 mg QE/g). This difference suggests distinct phytochemical profiles and potentially complementary health benefits. The metal ion chelating properties we observed in goji berries parallel those reported for adaptogenic plants like Sutherlandia frutescens, which demonstrates substantial chelating abilities. These comparisons highlight that goji berries, while possessing their unique bioactive profile, share important functional properties with other recognized superfoods, particularly in terms of antioxidant capacity and potential therapeutic applications. This positions goji berries within the broader context of functional foods with significant health-promoting properties while also suggesting areas for future research, particularly regarding enzyme inhibition properties that have been well-documented in adaptogenic plants.

3. Bioactive Compounds in Goji Berry and Advancements in Their Cultivations

The remarkable health-promoting properties attributed to goji berries are largely due to their rich array of bioactive compounds. These phytochemicals, which include polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and various other substances, have been the subject of extensive scientific investigation.

Polysaccharides. Polysaccharides, particularly LBPs, are considered the primary bioactive components of goji berries. These complex carbohydrates have garnered significant attention due to their potential health benefits, including immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor properties. The monosaccharide composition of LBPs includes arabinose, glucose, galactose, mannose, rhamnose, and xylose, with galactose often being the predominant sugar. The ratios of these monosaccharides can vary depending on the specific fraction of LBPs analyzed. Some LBPs also contain uronic acids, particularly galacturonic acid, which contribute to their acidic nature.

The extraction and purification of LBPs from goji berries have evolved significantly over the years, with researchers continually seeking to improve the yield, purity, and preservation of biological activity [34]. Traditional methods of extraction typically involve hot water extraction, which exploits the water-soluble nature of LBPs [20]. However, this method often results in the co-extraction of other water-soluble compounds, necessitating further purification steps. More recent extraction methods have focused on optimizing conditions to enhance yield and selectivity. These include ultrasound-assisted extraction [35], which uses acoustic cavitation to disrupt cell walls and improve mass transfer, and microwave-assisted extraction [36], which provides rapid and efficient heating. Enzyme-assisted extraction has also been explored, using cellulases and pectinases to break down cell wall components and facilitate the release of LBPs [37].

Following extraction, purification of LBPs typically involves a combination of techniques. Ethanol precipitation is often used as an initial step to separate polysaccharides from low molecular weight compounds [38]. This is followed by more sophisticated chromatographic techniques for further fractionation and purification. Ion-exchange chromatography is commonly employed to separate neutral and acidic polysaccharides [39]. Size-exclusion chromatography allows for the separation of LBPs based on their molecular weight. Affinity chromatography, utilizing the specific binding properties of certain LBPs, has also been used for selective purification. Advanced membrane technologies, such as ultrafiltration [40], have been applied to the purification of LBPs. These techniques offer the advantage of scalability and can be used to separate LBPs based on molecular weight cutoffs.

Our previous study aimed to identify and classify 20 species and varieties of Lycium spp. using electrochemical fingerprinting technology [41]. We collected electrochemical data from leaf tissues using two different extraction solvents and electrolytes. The study revealed that different Lycium species exhibited distinct electrochemical fingerprints, while varieties of the same species showed relatively similar profiles. Various machine learning models were applied to the processed data, with stochastic gradient boosting achieving the highest identification accuracy of 93.33% after the second derivative treatment. Other models, like support vector machines, also performed well, with an accuracy of 91.00%. The findings demonstrated that electrochemical fingerprinting combined with machine learning could effectively differentiate between species and varieties of Lycium spp., providing a reliable method for plant identification.

Table 1. Polysaccharide compounds reported from goji berry.

Compound	Analytical Methods	Reference
AGP	TSKgel G3000PWXL and GMPWXL columns with RID detection, using 0.1 M NaNO3 as mobile phase	[42]
LBP	Cosmosil 5 Diol-300-II column with ELSD detection, using the formic acid solution as mobile phase	[43]
LBLP5-A	TSKgel G4000SW column with RID detection, using 0.1 M Na2SO4 as mobile phase	[44]
LBP-1	Shodex KS-805 column with RID detection, using distilled water as mobile phase	[45]
LBP-II	TSKgel G4000PWXL column with RID detection, using 0.1 M NaCl as mobile phase	[46]
LBP-p8	Shodex SB-804 HQ column with RID detection, using water as mobile phase	[47]
LBP-s-1	Shodex Sugar KS-805 column with RID detection, using deionized water as mobile phase	[48]
LBPF5	TSKgel G3000PWXL column with RID detection, using 0.7% Na2SO4 as mobile phase	[49]
LbGp1	Sepharose 4B column with phenol-sulfuric acid detection, using 0.1 M KCl as mobile phase	[50]
LbGp1-OL	Sepharose 4B column with phenol-sulfuric acid detection, using 0.1 M KCl as mobile phase	[50]
LbGp2	Sepharose 4B column with phenol-sulfuric acid detection, using 0.1 M KCl as mobile phase	[51]
LbGp3	Sepharose 4B column with phenol-sulfuric acid detection, using 0.1 M KCl as mobile phase	[52]
LbGp4	Sepharose 4B column with phenol-sulfuric acid detection, using 0.1 M KCl as mobile phase	[53]
LP	Shodex OHpak SB-806M column with RID-MALLS detection, using 0.1 M NaNO3 as mobile phase	[54]
LRGP1	TSKgel G3000SW column with RID detection, using 0.1 M Na2SO4 as mobile phase	[55]
p-LBP	TSKgel G4000PWXL column with RID-MALLS detection, using 50 mM Na2SO4 as mobile phase	[56]
PLBP	Superdex column with RID detection, using 0.7% Na2SO4 as mobile phase	[57]

Abbreviations: ELSD: evaporative light scattering detection; RID: refractive index detection; MALLS: multi-angle laser light scattering; LBP: lycium barbarum polysaccharide; AGP: arabinogalactan-protein.

shows polysaccharide compounds reported from goji berries with citations.

Phenolic compounds. Phenolic compounds represent another important class of bioactive substances in goji berries. These compounds, characterized by the presence of one or more aromatic rings bearing one or more hydroxyl groups, contribute significantly to the antioxidant properties of goji berries. In goji berries, flavonols are the predominant class of flavonoids [58]. Quercetin and its glycosides, particularly rutin (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside), are the most abundant flavonols in goji berries. Rutin concentrations in dried goji berries have been reported to range from 1.0 to 1.3 mg/g dry weight [59]. Other flavonols identified in goji berries include kaempferol and myricetin, along with their glycosides.

Flavones, another subclass of flavonoids, are also present in goji berries, albeit in lower concentrations. Apigenin and luteolin, along with their glycosides, have been identified in various goji berry extracts [60,61]. The flavonoid profile of goji berries can vary significantly depending on factors such as cultivar, growing conditions, and stage of maturity. Additionally, processing methods, particularly drying techniques, can affect the flavonoid content and composition. The biological activities of flavonoids in goji berries are diverse and include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential anticancer properties. The antioxidant activity of these compounds is attributed to their ability to scavenge free radicals and chelate metal ions. Moreover, certain flavonoids have been shown to modulate the cellular signaling pathways involved in inflammation and cell proliferation.

Phenolic acids represent another important group of phenolic compounds in goji berries. Chlorogenic acid, a hydroxycinnamic acid derivative, is one of the most abundant phenolic acids in goji berries [59]. Concentrations of chlorogenic acid in dried goji berries have been reported to range from 0.5 to 1.1 mg/g dry weight. Other hydroxycinnamic acids identified in goji berries include caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, and ferulic acid [62]. Among the hydroxybenzoic acids, protocatechuic acid [63] and p-hydroxybenzoic acid [64] have been detected in goji berries, albeit in lower concentrations compared to the hydroxycinnamic acids.

Phenolic acids contribute to the overall antioxidant capacity of goji berries. They can act as free radical scavengers and metal chelators, potentially protecting cellular components from oxidative damage. Additionally, some phenolic acids have been shown to possess antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties.

Carotenoids. Carotenoids are lipophilic pigments that contribute to the characteristic orange-red color of goji berries. These compounds are known for their antioxidant properties and potential benefits for eye health. Zeaxanthin is the predominant carotenoid in goji berries, accounting for up to 60–80% of the total carotenoid content [65]. Zeaxanthin in goji berries is primarily present in the form of zeaxanthin dipalmitate, an esterified form that may enhance its stability and bioavailability. Concentrations of zeaxanthin in dried goji berries have been reported to range from 0.5 to 1.2 mg/g dry weight. β-Carotene is another significant carotenoid found in goji berries, typically present at concentrations of 0.1–0.5 mg/g dry weight [66]. Other carotenoids identified in goji berries include β-cryptoxanthin, neoxanthin, and lycophyll. The high content of zeaxanthin in goji berries has attracted particular interest due to its potential role in eye health. Zeaxanthin, along with lutein, accumulates in the macula of the eye, where it is thought to protect against oxidative damage and filter harmful blue light. This has led to investigations into the potential of goji berry consumption for the prevention of age-related macular degeneration [67].

Advancements in goji berry cultivation. The cultivation of goji berries has experienced significant developments in recent years, particularly in Northwest China, where it has been traditionally grown for over 2300 years [68]. As of 2022, the cultivation area in Ningxia alone reached approximately 380,000 mu (62,600 acres), with an impressive annual fresh fruit output of 300,000 tons. The rapid expansion of cultivation areas reflects the growing demand for goji berries in both health food and research applications. Ningxia has emerged as a core production region, distinguished by its comprehensive foundation, integrated production factors, robust scientific and technological support, and prominent brand advantage in goji berry cultivation [69]. The region’s success in goji berry cultivation can be attributed to several advanced agricultural practices and environmental conditions. Modern cultivation techniques have been developed to optimize various growth parameters. Research by Ju et al. [70] investigated the effects of cultivation techniques and varieties on goji berry quality, particularly focusing on leaf production. Among the 11 recommended varieties, the “Mingan” cultivar demonstrated superior characteristics, including the highest yield potential and rapid regeneration after cutting. Their study established that the proper timing of cuttings and appropriate cutting length (60–70 cm) are crucial factors for effective plant regeneration.

Advanced cultivation practices also incorporate sophisticated pruning strategies to enhance aeration, light penetration, and nutrient optimization [71]. Annual pruning during spring and winter has become standard practice to maintain optimal reproductive growth and energy distribution within the plants. However, this generates approximately 200,000 tons of branch waste annually in Ningxia alone, leading to the development of sustainable waste management practices in cultivation systems.

The industry has also made progress in soil management and environmental adaptation. Goji berry’s high salt tolerance and biological drainage abilities make it particularly suitable for windbreaking and saline soil conservation [72]. This characteristic has enabled the expansion of cultivation into previously underutilized agricultural lands. Recent advancements have also focused on standardizing production technologies. The establishment of industrial standards such as GH/T 1237-2019 [73] and T/NXFSA 002S-2020 [74] has helped regulate cultivation practices and ensure consistent product quality. These standards have been particularly important in the production of goji berry pulp, which has seen rapid market growth, with annual sales reaching 1 billion RMB [75]. Additionally, cultivation research has expanded to include various parts of the plant beyond fruit production. Studies have shown that leaves, known as “Tian jing cao”, can be cultivated for tea and vegetable production, with the betaine content ranging from 1.43% to 2.63% depending on the varieties and cutting dates. This diversification in cultivation goals has led to a more comprehensive utilization of the plant resources and increased economic value of goji berry cultivation.

4. Health Benefits and Nutraceutical Properties

The diverse array of bioactive compounds present in goji berries contributes to their wide-ranging health benefits and nutraceutical properties. These effects have been investigated through various in vitro studies, animal models, and human clinical trials. While many of these studies show promising results, it is important to note that further research is often needed to fully elucidate the mechanisms of action and to confirm the efficacy in humans.

Antioxidant activity. One of the most well-documented properties of goji berries is their potent antioxidant activity. This activity is attributed to the synergistic effects of various compounds present in the berries, including polysaccharides, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and carotenoids [76]. These compounds act through multiple mechanisms to neutralize harmful free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can damage cellular components and contribute to various pathological conditions [77]. In vitro studies have demonstrated the ability of goji berry extracts to scavenge various types of free radicals, including the superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, and DPPH radical [78]. Particularly noteworthy is the ability of goji berry-derived compounds to directly scavenge hydroxyl and superoxide radicals with an efficiency comparable to established antioxidant compounds. The hydroxyl radical scavenging ability has been shown to be similar to that of mannitol, while its superoxide radical scavenging ability is comparable to that of superoxide dismutase [79].

Animal studies have provided further evidence of the in vivo antioxidant effects of goji berries. For instance, rats fed with goji berry extracts have shown increased activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in various tissues [80]. A notable study demonstrated that a milk-based wolfberry preparation could inhibit FeCl₂/ascorbic acid-induced dysfunction in brain tissue and mitochondria, suggesting potential neuroprotective effects through antioxidant mechanisms [81].

Human intervention studies, while limited in number, have also reported positive effects on antioxidant status following goji berry consumption. A significant breakthrough came from a double-masked, randomized, placebo-controlled trial involving elderly subjects (65–70 years) who consumed a proprietary milk-based formulation of goji berry (Lacto-Wolfberry, LWB) for 90 days. The study demonstrated a remarkable 57% increase in plasma antioxidant capacity in the LWB group, while the placebo group showed no significant changes. This substantial increase in antioxidant capacity was notably higher than the corresponding increase in plasma zeaxanthin levels (26%), suggesting that goji berries contribute to antioxidant status through multiple mechanisms beyond their carotenoid content [79,82]. One unique aspect of goji berries’ antioxidant profile is the presence of a heat-stable vitamin C precursor, which is exclusive to this fruit. The daily consumption of the LWB formulation provided approximately 40 mg of ascorbic acid equivalent, contributing to the overall antioxidant capacity. This precursor, identified as 2-O-(β-D-Glucopyranosyl)ascorbic acid, has been shown to be metabolized to ascorbic acid in animal studies, although the exact conversion rate in humans remains to be determined [83].

Anti-inflammatory effects. Chronic inflammation is a key factor in the development of various diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and certain cancers [76]. Goji berries have demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory properties in both in vitro and in vivo studies, suggesting their potential to mitigate inflammation-related health issues. The anti-inflammatory effects of goji berries are largely attributed to their polysaccharides and flavonoid content. These compounds have been shown to modulate various inflammatory pathways and mediators. For instance, in vitro studies using macrophage cell lines have demonstrated that goji berry polysaccharides can suppress the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) [84].

The mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory effects of goji berries appear to involve multiple pathways. These include inhibition of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation, a key regulator of inflammatory gene expression, and modulation of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity, an enzyme involved in the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins [85]. While human studies on the anti-inflammatory effects of goji berries are limited, some preliminary data suggest potential benefits. For example, a small clinical trial in older adults found that daily consumption of goji berry juice for 30 days led to a reduction in serum levels of C-reactive protein, a marker of systemic inflammation [86].

Immunomodulatory properties. The immunomodulatory properties of goji berries, particularly their polysaccharides, have been a subject of considerable research interest. These effects are characterized by the ability to enhance various aspects of immune function, potentially contributing to improved defense against infections and certain chronic diseases [87]. In vitro studies have demonstrated that goji berry polysaccharides can stimulate the proliferation and activity of various immune cells, including T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, and natural killer (NK) cells. These polysaccharides have also been shown to enhance the production of immunoglobulins and cytokines involved in immune regulation [88]. The mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory effects of goji berries are complex and not fully elucidated. However, they are thought to involve the activation of various signaling pathways, including the nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) pathway and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade.

Neuroprotective effects. The potential neuroprotective effects of goji berries have garnered significant attention, particularly in the context of age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases [89]. Research suggests that LBPs can promote neural regeneration and repair. They have been found to increase the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells, which are crucial for maintaining and repairing the nervous system. This property could be particularly beneficial in cases of neurodegeneration or stroke-induced neural injury [90]. LBPs interact with various signaling pathways, including VEGF, Rho/ROCK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Nrf2/HO-1, and AGEs/RAGE. These interactions contribute to reducing inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis while promoting neuroprotection [91]. Goji berries could also influence cellular processes such as autophagy and apoptosis, which are crucial for maintaining neuronal health and function. While the potential neuroprotective effects of goji berries are promising, it is important to note that many studies have been conducted in vitro or in animal models. More human clinical trials are needed to fully understand the extent and mechanisms of these effects in the human brain. The bioavailability of LBPs in the body is relatively low, which has led to research into novel delivery methods to enhance their effectiveness. These include multicompartment delivery systems and scaffolds, which may improve the absorption and utilization of these beneficial compounds.

Anticancer potential. The high antioxidant capacity of goji fruit plays a crucial role in neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is a significant factor in cancer development as it can lead to DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, and protein alteration. By mitigating these effects, goji berries help protect cells from malignant transformation [92,93]. Cancer cells often evade apoptosis, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation. Studies have shown that extracts from goji berries can induce apoptosis in various cancer cell lines, including breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and T47D) [94]. This is achieved through the activation of pro-apoptotic proteins and the suppression of anti-apoptotic proteins, thereby restoring the balance towards cell death in cancerous cells. In addition, by boosting NK cell activity, goji berries help improve the immune system’s ability to target and eliminate cancer cells [87]. Research suggests that the combination of different bioactive compounds in goji berries may have synergistic effects, enhancing their overall anticancer potential. This means that the combined action of these compounds is more effective than the sum of their individual effects. This synergy is particularly beneficial in preventing and treating cancer, as it can target multiple pathways involved in cancer development and progression [92,93]. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the anticancer potential of goji berries. For example, methanol extracts of goji berries significantly decreased the viability of breast cancer cells and induced apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner [95].

Ocular health benefits. The potential benefits of goji berries for ocular health have attracted considerable attention, primarily due to their high content of zeaxanthin, a carotenoid that accumulates in the macula of the eye [96]. Recent clinical evidence has demonstrated that goji berries can significantly improve macular health through multiple mechanisms, particularly in the context of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which is the third leading cause of blindness worldwide [97]. The high zeaxanthin content of goji berries makes them particularly valuable for ocular health. Goji berries contain the highest amount of zeaxanthin among all known dietary sources, primarily present in dipalmitate form. This is especially significant because the typical adult human eye has approximately 2.4 times more zeaxanthin than lutein in the central fovea of the macula. The zeaxanthin dipalmitate (ZD) found in goji berries has shown superior bioavailability compared to non-esterified zeaxanthin supplementation. Clinical studies have demonstrated concrete benefits of goji berry consumption for ocular health. As shown in a randomized pilot trial, consumption of 28 g of goji berries five times weekly for 90 days significantly increased the macular pigment optical density (MPOD) in healthy adults aged 45–65 years. Figure 4 from the study clearly demonstrates that goji berry intake increased MPOD at both 0.25 and 1.75 retinal eccentricities after 90 days of consumption (p = 0.029 and p = 0.044, respectively), while no changes were observed in the lutein/zeaxanthin supplement group. The mechanisms underlying the ocular health benefits of goji berries are thought to involve multiple pathways. These include direct antioxidant actions of zeaxanthin and other compounds, modulation of inflammatory processes in the eye, and potential enhancement of ocular blood flow [98]. While these findings are encouraging, more extensive clinical trials are needed to confirm the long-term benefits of goji berry consumption for ocular health, particularly in the context of age-related eye diseases [98].

Adverse effects. While goji berry has been traditionally consumed for its numerous health benefits, several studies have documented potential adverse effects and safety concerns that warrant careful consideration. The most significant concerns relate to herb–drug interactions, allergic reactions, and hepatotoxicity. One of the most well-documented adverse effects involves interactions between goji berry and conventional medications. Studies have shown that goji berry can strongly inhibit multiple cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes, particularly CYP2D6 and CYP2C9, which are responsible for metabolizing various medications [99]. This inhibition can lead to potentially dangerous drug interactions. A notable example is the interaction with warfarin, an anticoagulant medication. Multiple case reports have documented increased international normalized ratio (INR) values and bleeding risks when patients consuming warfarin also ingested goji berries [100,101,102]. In one case, a patient’s INR increased to 7.18, well above the therapeutic range, leading to bleeding complications [103].

Several cases of immediate-type allergic reactions to goji berry have been documented. A comprehensive study by Larramendi et al. [101] found that among food-allergic individuals, 77.4% showed positive skin prick tests for goji berries, with 45.5% of those who had consumed goji berries experiencing allergic symptoms. These reactions ranged from mild oral allergy syndrome to more severe manifestations, including facial angioedema and dyspnea. The study identified that the allergic potential of goji berries is particularly high in individuals sensitized to lipid transfer proteins (LTPs), a common plant food allergen in Mediterranean regions. Cross-reactivity between goji berry LTPs and other food allergens, particularly peach peel, was demonstrated through immunoblot inhibition studies.

Cases of liver injury associated with goji berry consumption have been reported, although less frequently than other adverse effects. Arroyo-Martinez et al. [104] documented a case of hepatotoxicity linked to goji berry consumption, suggesting the need for monitoring liver function in regular consumers.

5. Future Perspectives and Research Directions

Gaps in current knowledge. Despite the growing body of research on goji berries, several significant gaps in our understanding remain. One of the primary areas requiring further investigation is the bioavailability and metabolism of goji berry compounds in humans. While numerous studies have demonstrated the potential health benefits of various goji berry constituents in vitro and in animal models, our understanding of how these compounds are absorbed, metabolized, and utilized in the human body is limited. This knowledge gap is particularly pronounced for complex molecules like polysaccharides, which may undergo significant transformations during digestion and absorption.

Another area that warrants further exploration is the potential synergistic effects between different compounds in goji berries. Most studies to date have focused on isolated compounds or crude extracts, but the complex matrix of phytochemicals in whole goji berries may interact in ways that are not fully understood. Investigating these potential synergies could provide insights into the optimal ways to consume or formulate goji berry products for maximum health benefits.

The long-term effects of goji berry consumption on human health also remain largely unexplored. While short-term studies have shown promising results in various health parameters, the impact of regular, long-term consumption of goji berries on chronic disease prevention and overall health outcomes is not well established. This gap in knowledge highlights the need for longitudinal studies that can track the effects of goji berry consumption over extended periods.

Emerging extraction and analysis techniques. The field of goji berry research is benefiting from advancements in extraction and analysis techniques, which are enabling more precise characterizations of goji berry compounds and potentially more efficient extraction methods for industrial applications. One emerging area is the use of green extraction technologies, which aim to minimize the environmental impact while maximizing the yield and purity of desired compounds. Techniques such as supercritical fluid extraction, particularly using carbon dioxide as a solvent, show promise for extracting lipophilic compounds from goji berries with high efficiency and without leaving solvent residues.

In the realm of analysis, advanced chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques are enabling more detailed characterization of goji berry constituents. High-resolution mass spectrometry coupled with liquid chromatography (LC-HRMS) is allowing for the identification of novel compounds and more accurate quantification of known constituents. These techniques are particularly valuable for elucidating the complex structures of goji berry polysaccharides and for identifying and quantifying minor constituents that may have significant biological activity. Metabolomic approaches are also gaining traction in goji berry research. These techniques, which aim to provide a comprehensive profile of all metabolites in a sample, could offer new insights into how the overall composition of goji berries changes in response to various factors, such as growing conditions or processing methods. Metabolomics could also be valuable in human studies, helping to track the metabolic fate of goji berry compounds and their impact on overall metabolic profiles.

Integration into functional foods and nutraceutical applications. The integration of goji berries into functional foods and nutraceuticals represents a promising avenue for delivering their health benefits in convenient formats. Recent advances in food processing and encapsulation technologies have enabled the development of various goji berry-fortified products while preserving their bioactive compounds. Studies have shown that microencapsulation using maltodextrin as a carrier material can effectively protect heat-sensitive compounds like zeaxanthin, maintaining over 80% retention after thermal processing. This approach has been successfully applied in beverage formulations, where encapsulated goji berry extracts showed enhanced stability compared to conventional formats. In dairy applications, particularly yogurt products, goji berry fortification has demonstrated remarkable stability of bioactive compounds. Research indicates that polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity remain largely preserved (>85%) in fortified yogurt products after 21 days of refrigerated storage. The water-soluble nature of LBPs makes them particularly suitable for incorporation into dairy matrices, while lipophilic compounds like zeaxanthin show improved bioavailability when delivered in milk-based formulations. Nanoencapsulation techniques have emerged as a promising approach for enhancing the bioavailability of goji berry compounds. Clinical studies comparing different delivery formats have shown that nanoencapsulated extracts achieve 1.5–2 times higher bioavailability compared to conventional preparations, particularly for lipophilic compounds. This enhanced bioavailability could potentially reduce the required dosage while maintaining therapeutic efficacy. These advances in formulation technology, coupled with stability and bioavailability improvements, suggest that goji berry-based functional foods and nutraceuticals could provide an effective means of delivering health benefits while meeting consumer preferences for convenient, familiar food formats.

Need for more clinical studies and standardization. Perhaps the most critical need in the field of goji berry research is for more comprehensive, well-designed clinical studies. While numerous in vitro and animal studies have demonstrated potential health benefits, human clinical trials are essential to confirm these effects and establish appropriate dosages for specific health outcomes. Long-term intervention studies are particularly needed to assess the effects of regular goji berry consumption on chronic disease risk and overall health outcomes. Additionally, there is a pressing need for standardization in goji berry research and product development. This includes the standardization of extraction methods, analytical techniques, and reporting of results to enable more meaningful comparisons between studies. Standardization is also crucial in the nutraceutical industry to ensure consistent quality and efficacy of goji berry-based products. The development of standardized goji berry extracts for use in clinical studies and commercial products is another important area for future work. These standardized extracts, with defined compositions of key bioactive compounds, would allow for more reliable and reproducible results in both research and product applications.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, this comprehensive review has highlighted the remarkable nutritional profile and diverse bioactive compounds present in goji berries (Lycium barbarum L.), underlining their potential as a functional food and nutraceutical ingredient. The berries’ rich array of macronutrients, micronutrients, and phytochemicals, particularly polysaccharides, flavonoids, and carotenoids, contribute to their wide-ranging health benefits. These include potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, immunomodulatory effects, neuroprotective properties, and potential anticancer and ocular health benefits. The unique Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) have emerged as a key focus of research, demonstrating promising results in various in vitro and animal studies. However, this review also emphasizes the need for more rigorous human clinical trials to conclusively establish the efficacy and optimal dosages of goji berry consumption for specific health outcomes. Additionally, the variability in nutrient composition due to geographical origin, cultivation practices, and processing methods underscores the importance of standardization in both research and commercial applications. As the popularity of goji berries continues to grow, there is a pressing need for further investigation into their bioavailability, metabolism, and potential synergistic effects between compounds. Advanced extraction and analysis techniques, coupled with metabolomics approaches, offer exciting avenues for future research. While challenges remain, the growing body of evidence supporting the nutraceutical properties of goji berries suggests their potential to play a significant role in functional foods and preventive nutrition strategies. Future research directions should focus on addressing current knowledge gaps and exploring novel applications to fully harness the health-promoting potential of this remarkable superfood.