Effect of Phasic Experimental Pain Applied during Motor Preparation or Execution on Motor Performance and Adaptation in a Reaching Task: A Randomized Trial
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Study Design
2.3. Instrumentation
2.4. Task Description
- (1)
- Starting position: the participant holds his index finger (represented by a white dot) in the starting target for 2000 ms;
- (2)
- Motor preparation phase (duration = 500 ms): the target to be reached (NEAR or FAR) appears in red (preparatory signal), and the participant is instructed to maintain his index finger in the starting target as long as the target is red;
- (3)
- The target to be reached switches to green and the participant initiates a reaching movement;
- (4)
- Once the target is reached or when the subject crosses the 10 cm virtual radius (i.e., misses the target), a dampening field is applied to rapidly stop the movement. The robot then passively returned the hand to the starting position;
- (5)
- The participant must maintain his index at the starting position for 1000 ms before moving on to the next trial.
2.5. Variables
- Baselines 1 and 2: last 10 trials of each baseline block;
- Early adaptation: first 5 trials of the adaptation block;
- Late adaptation: last 10 trials of the adaptation block;
- Early retention: first 5 trials of the retention block.
2.6. Statistical Analyses
- Between Baseline 1 and Baseline 2 (Day 1 only): to determine whether the presence of pain impacted baseline motor performance;
- Between early and late adaptation (Day 1 only): to determine the effect of the group (i.e., the presence of pain and its timing) on motor acquisition;
- Between early adaptation (Day 1) and early retention (Day 2): to determine the effect of the group (i.e., the presence of pain and its timing) on motor retention.
3. Results
3.1. Sample Description
3.2. Time Course of the Different Variables across the Experiment
3.3. Effect of Pain on Baseline Motor Performance
3.4. Effect of Pain on Adaptation
3.5. Effect of Pain on Retention
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Matthews, D.; Cancino, E.E.; Falla, D.; Khatibi, A. Exploring Pain Interference with Motor Skill Learning in Humans: A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE 2022, 17, e0274403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mercier, C.; Roosink, M.; Bouffard, J.; Bouyer, L.J. Promoting Gait Recovery and Limiting Neuropathic Pain After Spinal Cord Injury: Two Sides of the Same Coin? Neurorehabilit. Neural Repair 2017, 31, 315–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grau, J.W.; Huang, Y.-J.; Turtle, J.D.; Strain, M.M.; Miranda, R.C.; Garraway, S.M.; Hook, M.A. When Pain Hurts: Nociceptive Stimulation Induces a State of Maladaptive Plasticity and Impairs Recovery after Spinal Cord Injury. J. Neurotrauma 2017, 34, 1873–1890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Izadi, M.; Franklin, S.; Bellafiore, M.; Franklin, D.W. Motor Learning in Response to Different Experimental Pain Models Among Healthy Individuals: A Systematic Review. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2022, 16, 863741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dancey, E.; Murphy, B.; Andrew, D.; Yielder, P. Interactive Effect of Acute Pain and Motor Learning Acquisition on Sensorimotor Integration and Motor Learning Outcomes. J. Neurophysiol. 2016, 116, 2210–2220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dancey, E.; Murphy, B.A.; Andrew, D.; Yielder, P. The Effect of Local vs Remote Experimental Pain on Motor Learning and Sensorimotor Integration Using a Complex Typing Task. Pain 2016, 157, 1682–1695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boudreau, S.; Romaniello, A.; Wang, K.; Svensson, P.; Sessle, B.J.; Arendt-Nielsen, L. The Effects of Intra-Oral Pain on Motor Cortex Neuroplasticity Associated with Short-Term Novel Tongue-Protrusion Training in Humans. Pain 2007, 132, 169–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mavromatis, N.; Neige, C.; Gagné, M.; Reilly, K.; Mercier, C.; Mavromatis, N.; Neige, C.; Gagné, M.; Reilly, K.T.; Mercier, C. Effect of Experimental Hand Pain on Training-Induced Changes in Motor Performance and Corticospinal Excitability. Brain Sci. 2017, 7, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bouffard, J.; Bouyer, L.J.; Roy, J.-S.; Mercier, C. Pain Induced during Both the Acquisition and Retention Phases of Locomotor Adaptation Does Not Interfere with Improvements in Motor Performance. Neural Plast. 2016, 2016, 8539096. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bouffard, J.; Bouyer, L.J.; Roy, J.-S.; Mercier, C. Tonic Pain Experienced during Locomotor Training Impairs Retention Despite Normal Performance during Acquisition. J. Neurosci. 2014, 34, 9190–9195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamothe, M.; Roy, J.-S.; Bouffard, J.; Gagné, M.; Bouyer, L.J.; Mercier, C. Effect of Tonic Pain on Motor Acquisition and Retention While Learning to Reach in a Force Field. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e99159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Arieh, H.; Abdoli, B.; Farsi, A.; Haghparast, A. Assessment of Motor Skill Accuracy and Coordination Variability after Application of Local and Remote Experimental Pain. Res. Sports Med. 2022, 30, 325–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rittig-Rasmussen, B.; Kasch, H.; Fuglsang-Frederiksen, A.; Svensson, P.; Jensen, T.S. The Role of Neuroplasticity in Experimental Neck Pain: A Study of Potential Mechanisms Impeding Clinical Outcomes of Training. Man. Ther. 2014, 19, 288–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ingham, D.; Tucker, K.J.; Tsao, H.; Hodges, P.W. The Effect of Pain on Training-Induced Plasticity of the Corticomotor System. Eur. J. Pain 2011, 15, 1028–1034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salomoni, S.E.; Marinovic, W.; Carroll, T.J.; Hodges, P.W. Motor Strategies Learned during Pain Are Sustained upon Pain-Free Reexposure to Task. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2019, 51, 2334–2343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bouffard, J.; Sauro Salomoni, X.E.; Mercier, C.; Tucker, K.; Roy, J.-S.; Wolbert van den Hoorn, X.; Hodges, P.W.; Bouyer, L.J. Effect of Experimental Muscle Pain on the Acquisition and Retention of Locomotor Adaptation: Different Motor Strategies for a Similar Performance. J. Neurophysiol. 2018, 119, 1647–1657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bilodeau, M.-C.; Roosink, M.; Mercier, C. Effect of Local versus Remote Tonic Heat Pain during Training on Acquisition and Retention of a Finger-Tapping Sequence Task. Exp. Brain Res. 2016, 234, 475–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rohel, A.; Bouffard, J.; Patricio, P.; Mavromatis, N.; Billot, M.; Roy, J.S.; Bouyer, L.; Mercier, C.; Masse-Alarie, H. The Effect of Experimental Pain on the Excitability of the Corticospinal Tract in Humans: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Eur. J. Pain 2021, 25, 1209–1226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dupuis, F.; Pairot de Fontenay, B.; Bouffard, J.; Bouchard, M.; Bouyer, L.J.; Mercier, C.; Roy, J.-S. Does Musculoskeletal Pain Interfere with Motor Learning in a Gait Adaptation Task? A Proof-of-Concept Study. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 2022, 23, 281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knox, P.J.; Simon, C.B.; Pohlig, R.T.; Pugliese, J.M.; Coyle, P.C.; Sions, J.M.; Hicks, G.E. Movement-Evoked Pain Versus Widespread Pain: A Longitudinal Comparison in Older Adults With Chronic Low Back Pain From the Delaware Spine Studies. J. Pain 2023, 24, 980–990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vyas, S.; O’Shea, D.J.; Ryu, S.I.; Shenoy, K.V. Causal Role of Motor Preparation during Error-Driven Learning. Neuron 2020, 106, 329–339.e4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Riehle, A. Preparation for Action: One of the Key Functions of the Motor Cortex. In Motor Cortex in Voluntary Movements: A Distributed System for Distributed Functions; Routledge: London, UK, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Sheahan, H.R.; Franklin, D.W.; Wolpert, D.M. Motor Planning, Not Execution, Separates Motor Memories. Neuron 2016, 92, 773–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dupont-Hadwen, J.; Bestmann, S.; Stagg, C.J. Motor Training Modulates Intracortical Inhibitory Dynamics in Motor Cortex during Movement Preparation. Brain Stimul. 2019, 12, 300–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Frömer, R.; Stürmer, B.; Sommer, W. (Don’t) Mind the Effort: Effects of Contextual Interference on ERP Indicators of Motor Preparation. Psychophysiology 2016, 53, 1577–1586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leuthold, H.; Sommer, W.; Ulrich, R. Preparing for Action: Inferences from CNV and LRP. J. Psychophysiol. 2004, 18, 77–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neige, C.; Mavromatis, N.; Gagné, M.; Bouyer, L.J.; Mercier, C. Effect of Movement-Related Pain on Behaviour and Corticospinal Excitability Changes Associated with Arm Movement Preparation. J. Physiol. 2018, 596, 2917–2929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Misra, G.; Ofori, E.; Chung, J.W.; Coombes, S.A. Pain-Related Suppression of Beta Oscillations Facilitates Voluntary Movement. Cerebral Cortex 2017, 27, 2592–2606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Karos, K.; Meulders, A.; Gatzounis, R.; Seelen, H.A.M.; Geers, R.P.G.; Vlaeyen, J.W.S. Fear of Pain Changes Movement: Motor Behaviour Following the Acquisition of Pain-Related Fear. Eur. J. Pain 2017, 21, 1432–1442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Betti, S.; Badioli, M.; Dalbagno, D.; Garofalo, S.; di Pellegrino, G.; Starita, F. Topographically Selective Motor Inhibition under Threat of Pain. Pain 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neige, C.; Brun, C.; Gagné, M.; Bouyer, L.J.; Mercier, C. Do Nociceptive Stimulation Intensity and Temporal Predictability Influence Pain-Induced Corticospinal Excitability Modulation? Neuroimage 2020, 216, 116883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coderre, A.M.; Zeid, A.A.; Dukelow, S.P.; Demmer, M.J.; Moore, K.D.; Demers, M.J.; Bretzke, H.; Herter, T.M.; Glasgow, J.I.; Norman, K.E.; et al. Assessment of Upper-Limb Sensorimotor Function of Subacute Stroke Patients Using Visually Guided Reaching. Neurorehabilit. Neural Repair 2010, 24, 528–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Scott, S.H. Optimal Feedback Control and the Neural Basis of Volitional Motor Control. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2004, 5, 532–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kantak, S.S.; Winstein, C.J. Learning-Performance Distinction and Memory Processes for Motor Skills: A Focused Review and Perspective. Behav. Brain Res. 2012, 228, 219–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bromm, B.; Jahnke, M.T.; Treede, R.D. Responses of Human Cutaneous Afferents to CO2 Laser Stimuli Causing Pain. Exp. Brain Res. 1984, 55, 158–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Treede, R.D. Neurophysiological Studies of Pain Pathways in Peripheral and Central Nervous System Disorders. J. Neurol. 2003, 250, 1152–1161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neige, C.; Massé-Alarie, H.; Gagné, M.; Bouyer, L.J.; Mercier, C. Modulation of Corticospinal Output in Agonist and Antagonist Proximal Arm Muscles during Motor Preparation. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0188801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meulders, A.; Vansteenwegen, D.; Vlaeyen, J.W.S. The Acquisition of Fear of Movement-Related Pain and Associative Learning: A Novel Pain-Relevant Human Fear Conditioning Paradigm. Pain 2011, 152, 2460–2469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Batcho, C.S.; Gagné, M.; Bouyer, L.J.; Roy, J.S.; Mercier, C. Impact of Online Visual Feedback on Motor Acquisition and Retention When Learning to Reach in a Force Field. Neuroscience 2016, 337, 267–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baudry, S.; Duchateau, J. Changes in Corticospinal Excitability during the Preparation Phase of Ballistic and Ramp Contractions. J. Physiol. 2021, 599, 1551–1566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krabbenbos, I.P.; van Swol, C.F.; van Dongen, E.P.; Tromp, S.C.; Boezeman, E.H. Stimulating Aδ and C-Fibers in the Lower Limb With a 980 Nm Diode Laser. J. Neurol. Res. 2013, 3, 56–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Massé-Alarie, H.; Shraim, M.A.; Taylor, J.L.; Hodges, P.W. Effects of Different Modalities of Afferent Stimuli of the Lumbo-Sacral Area on Control of Lumbar Paravertebral Muscles. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2022, 56, 3687–3704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wasaka, T.; Nakata, H.; Kida, T.; Kakigi, R. Changes in the Centrifugal Gating Effect on Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Depending on the Level of Contractile Force. Exp. Brain Res. 2005, 166, 118–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Starr, A.; Cohen, L.G. “Gating” of Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Begins before the Onset of Voluntary Movement in Man. Brain Res. 1985, 348, 183–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Voisin, J.I.A.; Rodrigues, E.C.; Hétu, S.; Jackson, P.L.; Vargas, C.D.; Malouin, F.; Chapman, C.E.; Mercier, C. Modulation of the Response to a Somatosensory Stimulation of the Hand during the Observation of Manual Actions. Exp. Brain Res. 2011, 208, 11–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pinto, E.A.; Van Ryckeghem, D.M.L.; Meulders, A.; Torta, D.M.; Claus, A.; Van Damme, S. Motor Action Changes Pain Perception: A Sensory Attenuation Paradigm in the Context of Pain. Pain 2021, 162, 2060–2069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Babiloni, C.; Capotosto, P.; Brancucci, A.; Del Percio, C.; Petrini, L.; Buttiglione, M.; Cibelli, G.; Romani, G.L.; Rossini, P.M.; Arendt-Nielsen, L. Cortical Alpha Rhythms Are Related to the Anticipation of Sensorimotor Interaction Between Painful Stimuli and Movements: A High-Resolution EEG Study. J. Pain 2008, 9, 902–911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guieu, R.; Serratrice, G. Identifying the Afferents Involved in Movement-Induced Pain Alleviation in Man. Brain 1992, 115, 1073–1079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kakigi, R.; Matsuda, Y.; Kuroda, Y. Effects of Movement-related Cortical Activities on Pain-related Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Following CO2 Laser Stimulation in Normal Subjects. Acta Neurol. Scand. 1993, 88, 376–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakata, H.; Sakamoto, K.; Honda, Y.; Mochizuki, H.; Hoshiyama, M.; Kakigi, R. Centrifugal Modulation of Human LEP Components to a Task-Relevant Noxious Stimulation Triggering Voluntary Movement. Neuroimage 2009, 45, 129–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakata, H.; Inui, K.; Wasaka, T.; Tamura, Y.; Tran, T.D.; Qiu, Y.; Wang, X.; Nguyen, T.B.; Kakigi, R. Movements Modulate Cortical Activities Evoked by Noxious Stimulation. Pain 2004, 107, 91–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Le Pera, D.; Brancucci, A.; De Armas, L.; Del Percio, C.; Miliucci, R.; Babiloni, C.; Restuccia, D.; Rossini, P.M.; Valeriani, M. Inhibitory Effect of Voluntary Movement Preparation on Cutaneous Heat Pain and Laser-Evoked Potentials. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2007, 25, 1900–1907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vrána, J.; Poláček, H.; Stančák, A. Somatosensory-Evoked Potentials Are Influenced Differently by Isometric Muscle Contraction of Stimulated and Non-Stimulated Hand in Humans. Neurosci. Lett. 2005, 386, 170–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Osborne, N.R.; Davis, K.D. Sex and Gender Differences in Pain. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 2022, 164, 277–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deodato, M.; Saponaro, S.; Šimunič, B.; Martini, M.; Galmonte, A.; Murena, L.; Buoite Stella, A. Sex-Based Comparison of Trunk Flexors and Extensors Functional and Contractile Characteristics in Young Gymnasts. Sport Sci. Health 2024, 20, 147–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tosi, L.L.; Templeton, K.; Pennington, A.M.; Reid, K.A.; Boyan, B.D. Influence of Sex and Gender on Musculoskeletal Conditions and How They Are Reported. J. Bone Jt. Surg. 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Perini, I.; Bergstrand, S.; Morrison, I. Where Pain Meets Action in the Human Brain. J. Neurosci. 2013, 33, 15930–15939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Postorino, M.; May, E.S.; Nickel, M.M.; Tiemann, L.; Ploner, M. Influence of Pain on Motor Preparation in the Human Brain. J. Neurophysiol. 2017, 118, 2267–2274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Forster, B.; Cavina-Pratesi, C.; Aglioti, S.M.; Berlucchi, G. Redundant Target Effect and Intersensory Facilitation from Visual-Tactile Interactions in Simple Reaction Time. Exp. Brain Res. 2002, 143, 480–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Osumi, M.; Sumitani, M.; Nishi, Y.; Nobusako, S.; Dilek, B.; Morioka, S. Fear of Movement-Related Pain Disturbs Cortical Preparatory Activity after Becoming Aware of Motor Intention. Behav. Brain Res. 2021, 411, 113379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Control N = 16 | Preparation N = 16 | Execution N = 16 | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||
Age, years (mean ± SD) | 25.5 ± 4.50 | 25.6 ± 5.03 | 24.0 ± 4.50 | 0.54 |
Females (n (%)) | 10 (62.50) | 9 (56.25) | 9 (56.25) | 0.91 |
Right handed (n (%)) | 16 (100) | 15 (93.75) | 16 (100) | 0.36 |
Laser intensity, J (mean ± SD) | N/A | 4.00 ± 0.32 | 4.08 ± 0.33 | 0.50 1 |
Pain ratings (/10; mean ± SD) | ||||
Day 1: | ||||
Before Baseline 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
End of Baseline 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
End of Baseline 2 | 0 | 2.20 ± 1.07 | 1.66 ± 1.17 | 0.48 1 |
End of Adaptation | 0 | 2.23 ± 1.21 | 1.91 ± 1.51 | 0.82 1 |
Day 2: | ||||
Before Retention | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
End of Retention | 0 | 2.06 ± 0.94 | 1.97 ± 1.18 | 0.99 1 |
Period 1 (Mean ± SD) | Period 2 (Mean ± SD) | Time (p-Value) | Group (p-Value) | Interaction (p-Value) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
iANG (°) | ||||||
Baseline 1 vs. Baseline 2 | Control | −3.2 ± 5.1 | −3.7 ± 4.8 | 0.488 | 0.012 | 0.434 |
Preparation | 0.7 ± 4.6 | 1.3 ± 4.9 | ||||
Execution | −3.6 ± 5.0 | −4.7 ± 7.6 | ||||
Early Adaptation vs. Late Adaptation | Control | −14.3 ± 10.7 | 7.3 ± 8.6 | <0.0001 | 0.179 | 0.873 |
Preparation | −12.6 ± 8.7 | 7.8 ± 10.9 | ||||
Execution | −7.6 ± 5.9 | 11.1 ± 12.9 | ||||
Early Adaptation vs. Early Retention | Control | −14.3 ± 10.65 | 4.9 ± 12.5 | <0.0001 | 0.522 | 0.290 |
Preparation | −12.6 ± 8.65 | 3.6 ± 11.3 | ||||
Execution | −7.6 ± 5.91 | 4.4 ± 13.2 | ||||
Ferr (°) | ||||||
Baseline 1 vs. Baseline 2 | Control | 2.4 ± 1.0 | 2.7 ± 1.3 | <0.0004 | 0.928 | 0.018 |
Preparation | 2.5 ± 1.1 | 2.5 ± 1.3 | ||||
Execution | 1.8 ± 0.7 | 3.0 ± 1.4 | ||||
Early Adaptation vs. Late Adaptation | Control | 10.5 ± 7.2 | 2.8 ± 2.9 | <0.0001 | 0.651 | 0.290 |
Preparation | 12.4 ± 8.5 | 4.0 ± 3.2 | ||||
Execution | 11.4 ± 9.4 | 2.3 ± 3.0 | ||||
Early Adaptation vs. Early Retention | Control | 10.5 ± 7.2 | 4.4 ± 3.7 | <0.0001 | 0.775 | 0.899 |
Preparation | 12.4 ± 8.5 | 4.9 ± 3.1 | ||||
Execution | 11.4 ± 9.4 | 4.9 ± 3.50 | ||||
RT (ms) | ||||||
Baseline 1 vs. Baseline 2 | Control | 246.6 ± 41.6 | 243.3 ± 32.8 | 0.010 | 0.469 | 0.017 |
Preparation | 252.0 ± 43.8 | 217.0 ± 39.2 | ||||
Execution | 233.0 ± 23.7 | 230.5 ± 32.7 | ||||
Early Adaptation vs. Late Adaptation | Control | 18.8 ± 46.28 | −27.6 ± 30.4 | <0.0001 | 0.600 | 0.216 |
Preparation | 17.8 ± 41.07 | −2.1 ± 46.6 | ||||
Execution | 20.3 ± 35.38 | −6.1 ± 58.7 | ||||
Early Adaptation vs. Early Retention | Control | 18.8 ± 46.28 | −14.7 ± 50.9 | <0.0004 | 0.834 | 0.707 |
Preparation | 17.8 ± 41.07 | −3.8 ± 31.4 | ||||
Execution | 20.3 ± 35.38 | −1.4 ± 43.9 | ||||
MT (ms) | ||||||
Baseline 1 vs. Baseline 2 | Control | 305.1 ± 66.3 | 326.6 ± 70.0 | 0.063 | 0.894 | 0.106 |
Preparation | 311.0 ± 70.3 | 306.7 ± 62.9 | ||||
Execution | 299.1 ± 65.7 | 309.7 ± 87.1 | ||||
Early Adaptation vs. Late Adaptation | Control | 146.4 ± 125.1 | 39.6 ± 65.6 | <0.0001 | 0.651 | 0.290 |
Preparation | 152.2 ± 142.9 | 30.8 ± 48.1 | ||||
Execution | 192.2 ± 188.4 | 39.6 ± 97.8 | ||||
Early Adaptation vs. Early Retention | Control | 146.4 ± 125.1 | 55.4 ± 110.1 | <0.0001 | 0.483 | 0.828 |
Preparation | 152.2 ± 142.9 | 31.1 ± 76.14 | ||||
Execution | 192.2 ± 188.41 | 66.0 ± 75.3 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Badr, L.; Gagné-Pelletier, L.; Massé-Alarie, H.; Mercier, C. Effect of Phasic Experimental Pain Applied during Motor Preparation or Execution on Motor Performance and Adaptation in a Reaching Task: A Randomized Trial. Brain Sci. 2024, 14, 851. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14090851
Badr L, Gagné-Pelletier L, Massé-Alarie H, Mercier C. Effect of Phasic Experimental Pain Applied during Motor Preparation or Execution on Motor Performance and Adaptation in a Reaching Task: A Randomized Trial. Brain Sciences. 2024; 14(9):851. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14090851
Chicago/Turabian StyleBadr, Laïla, Léandre Gagné-Pelletier, Hugo Massé-Alarie, and Catherine Mercier. 2024. "Effect of Phasic Experimental Pain Applied during Motor Preparation or Execution on Motor Performance and Adaptation in a Reaching Task: A Randomized Trial" Brain Sciences 14, no. 9: 851. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14090851