Determinants of the Hesitancy toward COVID-19 Vaccination in Eastern European Countries and the Relationship with Health and Vaccine Literacy: A Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Eligibility Criteria
2.2. Information Sources and Search
2.3. Data Charting Process
2.4. Selection of Sources of Evidence
2.5. Quality Appraisal
3. Confidence in Vaccines’ Safety and Efficacy
3.1. Vaccine Brand Preferences
3.2. Confidence in Trials Evaluating COVID-19 Vaccines and in Resulting Clinical Evidence
3.3. Confidence Dynamics in Time: Comparisons before and after Vaccine Initiation or Social Popularization
3.4. Associations with Spirituality and Religion
3.5. Conspiracy Beliefs
“3 out of 5 citizens in Montenegro believe that there is a secret group of powerful individuals who control global events and that the coronavirus was produced and spread intentionally as a biological weapon so that the world powers could benefit from it in political or economic terms. Furthermore, over one-half of the surveyed citizens believe that the world’s elites created the coronavirus to make the world economies collapse, from which they would benefit financially, and to decrease the number of people on the planet. On the other hand, almost two-thirds of the surveyed citizens do not believe the claim that coronavirus does not exist but rather that it is a result of a conspiracy by the world’s elite to deprive us of our freedom.”
3.6. The Misinformation Phenomenon
3.7. The Influence of the Community in Shaping Personal Opinions
4. Health and Vaccine Literacy
4.1. Vaccine Literacy in the General Population
4.2. Attitudes toward Vaccination in Health Workers or Students
5. Confidence in the Healthcare System, Government, and Public Health Measures
6. Predictors of Willingness/Unwillingness to Vaccinate
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Mahase, E. COVID-19: Pfizer’s paxlovid is 89% effective in patients at risk of serious illness, company reports. BMJ 2021, 375, n2713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bruxvoort, K.J.; Sy, L.S.; Qian, L.; Ackerson, B.K.; Luo, Y.; Lee, G.S.; Tian, Y.; Florea, A.; Aragones, M.; Tubert, J.E.; et al. Effectiveness of mRNA-1273 against delta, mu, and other emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2: Test negative case-control study. BMJ 2021, 375, e068848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sheikh, A.; Robertson, C.; Taylor, B. BNT162b2 and ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 Vaccine Effectiveness against Death from the Delta Variant. N. Engl. J. Med. 2021, 385, 2195–2197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baden, L.R.; El Sahly, H.M.; Essink, B.; Kotloff, K.; Frey, S.; Novak, R.; Diemert, D.; Spector, S.A.; Rouphael, N.; Creech, C.B.; et al. Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 2021, 384, 403–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Polack, F.P.; Thomas, S.J.; Kitchin, N.; Absalon, J.; Gurtman, A.; Lockhart, S.; Perez, J.L.; Pérez Marc, G.; Moreira, E.D.; Zerbini, C.; et al. Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 383, 2603–2615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sadoff, J.; Gray, G.; Vandebosch, A.; Cárdenas, V.; Shukarev, G.; Grinsztejn, B.; Goepfert, P.A.; Truyers, C.; Fennema, H.; Spiessens, B.; et al. Safety and Efficacy of Single-Dose Ad26.COV2.S Vaccine against COVID-19. N. Engl. J. Med. 2021, 384, 2187–2201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Falsey, A.R.; Sobieszczyk, M.E.; Hirsch, I.; Sproule, S.; Robb, M.L.; Corey, L.; Neuzil, K.M.; Hahn, W.; Hunt, J.; Mulligan, M.J.; et al. Phase 3 Safety and Efficacy of AZD1222 (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19) COVID-19 Vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 2021, 385, 2348–2360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamptey, E. Should Breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 Infection Affect Our Confidence in the COVID-19 Vaccines? Infect. Chemother. 2021, 53, 676–685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cot, C.; Cacciapaglia, G.; Islind, A.S.; Óskarsdóttir, M.; Sannino, F. Impact of US vaccination strategy on COVID-19 wave dynamics. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 10960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Makhoul, M.; Chemaitelly, H.; Ayoub, H.H.; Seedat, S.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. Epidemiological Differences in the Impact of COVID-19 Vaccination in the United States and China. Vaccines 2021, 9, 223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bartsch, S.M.; O’Shea, K.J.; Ferguson, M.C.; Bottazzi, M.E.; Wedlock, P.T.; Strych, U.; McKinnell, J.A.; Siegmund, S.S.; Cox, S.N.; Hotez, P.J.; et al. Vaccine Efficacy Needed for a COVID-19 Coronavirus Vaccine to Prevent or Stop an Epidemic as the Sole Intervention. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2020, 59, 493–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sallam, M. COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy Worldwide: A Concise Systematic Review of Vaccine Acceptance Rates. Vaccines 2021, 9, 160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Breiman, L. Random Forests. Mach. Learn. 2001, 45, 5–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Helleberg, M.; Steensen, M.; Arendrup, M.C. Invasive aspergillosis in patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Off. Publ. Eur. Soc. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2020, 27, 147–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gallo, V.; Chiodini, P.; Bruzzese, D.; Kondilis, E.; Howdon, D.; Mierau, J.; Bhopal, R. Comparing the COVID-19 pandemic in space and over time in Europe, using numbers of deaths, crude rates and adjusted mortality trend ratios. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 16443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schaefer, G.O.; Leland, R.J.; Emanuel, E.J. Making Vaccines Available to Other Countries before Offering Domestic Booster Vaccinations. JAMA 2021, 326, 903–904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cascini, F.; Pantovic, A.; Al-Ajlouni, Y.; Failla, G.; Ricciardi, W. Attitudes, acceptance and hesitancy among the general population worldwide to receive the COVID-19 vaccines and their contributing factors: A systematic review. eClinicalMedicine 2021, 40, 101113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tricco, A.C.; Lillie, E.; Zarin, W.; O’Brien, K.K.; Colquhoun, H.; Levac, D.; Moher, D.; Peters, M.D.J.; Horsley, T.; Weeks, L.; et al. PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation. Ann. Intern. Med. 2018, 169, 467–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Raciborski, F.; Jankowski, M.; Gujski, M.; Pinkas, J.; Samel-Kowalik, P. Changes in Attitudes towards the COVID-19 Vaccine and the Willingness to Get Vaccinated among Adults in Poland: Analysis of Serial, Cross-Sectional, Representative Surveys, January-April 2021. Vaccines 2021, 9, 832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gheorghe, A.S.; Negru, S.M.; Nitipir, C.; Mazilu, L.; Marinca, M.; Gafton, B.; Ciuleanu, T.E.; Schenker, M.; Dragomir, R.D.; Gheorghe, A.D.; et al. Knowledge, attitudes and practices related to the COVID-19 outbreak among Romanian adults with cancer: A cross-sectional national survey. ESMO Open 2021, 6, 100027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kufel-Grabowska, J.; Bartoszkiewicz, M.; Ramlau, R.; Litwiniuk, M. Cancer patients and internal medicine patients attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination in Poland. Adv. Clin. Exp. Med. 2021, 30, 805–811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Matovina Brko, G.; Popovic, M.; Jovic, M.; Radic, J.; Bodlovic Kladar, M.; Nikolic, I.; Vidovic, V.; Kolarov Bjelobrk, I.; Kukic, B.; Salma, S.; et al. COVID-19 vaccines and cancer patients: Acceptance, attitudes and safety. J. BUON 2021, 26, 2183–2190. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Marijanovic, I.; Kraljevic, M.; Buhovac, T.; Sokolovic, E. Acceptance of COVID-19 Vaccination and Its Associated Factors among Cancer Patients Attending the Oncology Clinic of University Clinical Hospital Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina: A Cross-Sectional Study. Med. Sci. Monit. 2021, 27, e932788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Puteikis, K.; Mameniskiene, R. Factors Associated with COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy among People with Epilepsy in Lithuania. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, S.J.; Xiong, Y.Q.; Jiang, L.N.; Chen, Q. Risk of febrile seizure after measles-mumps-rubella-varicella vaccine: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccine 2015, 33, 3636–3649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Skjefte, M.; Ngirbabul, M.; Akeju, O.; Escudero, D.; Hernandez-Diaz, S.; Wyszynski, D.F.; Wu, J.W. COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among pregnant women and mothers of young children: Results of a survey in 16 countries. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2021, 36, 197–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peters, M.D.J.; Godfrey, C.M.; Khalil, H.; McInerney, P.; Parker, D.; Soares, C.B. Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews. Int. J. Evid.-Based Healthc. 2015, 13, 141–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- EMA. Safety of COVID-19 Vaccines. Available online: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/human-regulatory/overview/public-health-threats/coronavirus-disease-covid-19/treatments-vaccines/vaccines-covid-19/safety-covid-19-vaccines (accessed on 7 April 2022).
- Actualizare Zilnica (13/03)—Evidenta Persoanelor Vaccinate Impotriva COVID-19. Available online: https://vaccinare-covid.gov.ro/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Tabel-situatie-vaccinari_13.03.2022.pdf (accessed on 7 April 2022).
- Rzymski, P.; Zeyland, J.; Poniedzialek, B.; Malecka, I.; Wysocki, J. The Perception and Attitudes toward COVID-19 Vaccines: A Cross-Sectional Study in Poland. Vaccines 2021, 9, 382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tran, V.D.; Pak, T.V.; Gribkova, E.I.; Galkina, G.A.; Loskutova, E.E.; Dorofeeva, V.V.; Dewey, R.S.; Nguyen, K.T.; Pham, D.T. Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in a high infection-rate country: A cross-sectional study in Russia. Pharm. Pract. (Granada) 2021, 19, 2276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stepanek, L.; Janosikova, M.; Nakladalova, M.; Ivanova, K.; Macik, J.; Borikova, A.; Vildova, H. Motivation for COVID-19 Vaccination in Priority Occupational Groups: A Cross-Sectional Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Babicki, M.; Mastalerz-Migas, A. Attitudes toward Vaccination against COVID-19 in Poland. A Longitudinal Study Performed before and Two Months after the Commencement of the Population Vaccination Programme in Poland. Vaccines 2021, 9, 503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dascalu, S.; Geambasu, O.; Covaciu, O.; Chereches, R.M.; Diaconu, G.; Dumitra, G.G.; Gheorghita, V.; Popovici, E.D. Prospects of COVID-19 Vaccination in Romania: Challenges and Potential Solutions. Front. Public Health 2021, 9, 644538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Avangarde. Percepții: Epidemie, Școală, Sănătate, Privatizare. Available online: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1WMXOORGCzVDQjzzp3oshYY24RVeC8HRe/view (accessed on 13 January 2022).
- Goodwin, R.; Ben-Ezra, M.; Takahashi, M.; Luu, L.-A.N.; Borsfay, K.; Kovács, M.; Hou, W.K.; Hamama-Raz, Y.; Levin, Y. Psychological factors underpinning vaccine willingness in Israel, Japan and Hungary. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Oroszi, B.; Juhász, A.; Nagy, C.; Horváth, J.K.; Komlós, K.E.; Túri, G.; McKee, M.; Ádány, R. Characteristics of the Third COVID-19 Pandemic Wave with Special Focus on Socioeconomic Inequalities in Morbidity, Mortality and the Uptake of COVID-19 Vaccination in Hungary. J. Pers. Med. 2022, 12, 388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lindholt, M.F.; Jørgensen, F.; Bor, A.; Petersen, M.B. Public acceptance of COVID-19 vaccines: Cross-national evidence on levels and individual-level predictors using observational data. BMJ Open 2021, 11, e048172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sándor, J.; Vincze, F.; Shrikant, M.L.; Kőrösi, L.; Ulicska, L.; Kósa, K.; Ádány, R. COVID-19 vaccination coverage in deprived populations living in segregated colonies: A nationwide cross-sectional study in Hungary. PLoS ONE 2022, 17, e0264363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Riad, A.; Pokorná, A.; Antalová, N.; Krobot, M.; Zviadadze, N.; Serdiuk, I.; Koščík, M.; Klugar, M. Prevalence and Drivers of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy among Czech University Students: National Cross-Sectional Study. Vaccines 2021, 9, 948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sljivo, A.; Cetkovic, A.; Abdulkhaliq, A.; Kiseljakovic, M.; Selimovic, A.; Kulo, A. COVID-19 vaccination knowledge, attitudes and practices among residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the third wave of COVID-19 outbreak. Ann. Ig. 2021. Available online: https://annali-igiene.it/fascicoli/covid-19-vaccination-knowledge-attitudes-and-practices-among-residents-of-bosnia-and-herzegovina-during-the-third-wave-of-covid-19-outbreak/ (accessed on 22 April 2022). [CrossRef]
- Manolescu, L.S.C.; Zaharia, C.N.; Dumitrescu, A.I.; Prasacu, I.; Radu, M.C.; Boeru, A.C.; Boidache, L.; Nita, I.; Necsulescu, A.; Chivu, R.D. Early COVID-19 Vaccination of Romanian Medical and Social Personnel. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rzymski, P.; Poniedzialek, B.; Fal, A. Willingness to Receive the Booster COVID-19 Vaccine Dose in Poland. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hall, V.G.; Ferreira, V.H.; Ku, T.; Ierullo, M.; Majchrzak-Kita, B.; Chaparro, C.; Selzner, N.; Schiff, J.; McDonald, M.; Tomlinson, G.; et al. Randomized Trial of a Third Dose of mRNA-1273 Vaccine in Transplant Recipients. N. Engl. J. Med. 2021, 385, 1244–1246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wawrzuta, D.; Jaworski, M.; Gotlib, J.; Panczyk, M. What Arguments against COVID-19 Vaccines Run on Facebook in Poland: Content Analysis of Comments. Vaccines 2021, 9, 481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kachurka, R.; Krawczyk, M.W.; Rachubik, J. Persuasive messages will not raise COVID-19 vaccine acceptance. Evidence from a nation-wide online experiment. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kosarkova, A.; Malinakova, K.; van Dijk, J.P.; Tavel, P. Vaccine Refusal in the Czech Republic Is Associated with Being Spiritual but Not Religiously Affiliated. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raciborski, F.; Samel-Kowalik, P.; Gujski, M.; Pinkas, J.; Arcimowicz, M.; Jankowski, M. Factors Associated with a Lack of Willingness to Vaccinate against COVID-19 in Poland: A 2021 Nationwide Cross-Sectional Survey. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sowa, P.; Kiszkiel, L.; Laskowski, P.P.; Alimowski, M.; Szczerbinski, L.; Paniczko, M.; Moniuszko-Malinowska, A.; Kaminski, K. COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Poland-Multifactorial Impact Trajectories. Vaccines 2021, 9, 876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teovanovic, P.; Lukic, P.; Zupan, Z.; Lazic, A.; Ninkovic, M.; Zezelj, I. Irrational beliefs differentially predict adherence to guidelines and pseudoscientific practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 2020, 35, 486–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ipsos. Attitudes of Montenegro’s Citizens on Disinformation and Conspiracy Theories Related to Coronavirus and Vaccines. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/montenegro/sites/unicef.org.montenegro/files/2021-06/%28ENG%29%20IPSOS%20Conspiracy%20theories%20report%20for%20publishing%20edited.pdf (accessed on 7 April 2022).
- Petravic, L.; Arh, R.; Gabrovec, T.; Jazbec, L.; Rupcic, N.; Staresinic, N.; Zorman, L.; Pretnar, A.; Srakar, A.; Zwitter, M.; et al. Factors Affecting Attitudes towards COVID-19 Vaccination: An Online Survey in Slovenia. Vaccines 2021, 9, 247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maftei, A.; Holman, A.C. SARS-CoV-2 Threat Perception and Willingness to Vaccinate: The Mediating Role of Conspiracy Beliefs. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 672634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Betsch, C.; Renkewitz, F.; Betsch, T.; Ulshöfer, C. The Influence of Vaccine-critical Websites on Perceiving Vaccination Risks. J. Health Psychol. 2010, 15, 446–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cristea, D.; Ilie, D.G.; Constantinescu, C.; Firtala, V. Vaccinating against COVID-19: The Correlation between Pro-Vaccination Attitudes and the Belief That Our Peers Want to Get Vaccinated. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kregar Velikonja, N.; Dobrowolska, B.; Stanisavljevic, S.; Erjavec, K.; Globevnik Velikonja, V.; Verdenik, I. Attitudes of Nursing Students towards Vaccination and Other Preventive Measures for Limitation of COVID-19 Pandemic: Cross-Sectional Study in Three European Countries. Healthcare 2021, 9, 781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Biasio, L.R. Vaccine literacy is undervalued. Hum. Vaccin. Immunother. 2019, 15, 2552–2553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gusar, I.; Konjevoda, S.; Babić, G.; Hnatešen, D.; Čebohin, M.; Orlandini, R.; Dželalija, B. Pre-Vaccination COVID-19 Vaccine Literacy in a Croatian Adult Population: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Herdea, V.; Duduciuc, A.; Ghionaru, R.; Comnea, L.; Paduraru, L.; Diaconescu, S. Assessment of the risk of infection among Romanian physicians at the outbreak of the SARS CoV-2 pandemic. Eur. J. Gen. Pract. 2021, 27, 235–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zdziarski, K.; Landowski, M.; Zabielska, P.; Karakiewicz, B. Subjective Feelings of Polish Doctors after Receiving the COVID-19 Vaccine. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Konopinska, J.; Obuchowska, I.; Lisowski, L.; Dub, N.; Kozera, M.; Rekas, M. Intention to Get COVID-19 Vaccinations among Ophthalmology Residents in Poland: A Cross-Sectional Survey. Vaccines 2021, 9, 371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ulbrichtova, R.; Svihrova, V.; Tatarkova, M.; Hudeckova, H.; Svihra, J. Acceptance of COVID-19 Vaccination among Healthcare and Non-Healthcare Workers of Hospitals and Outpatient Clinics in the Northern Region of Slovakia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balan, A.; Bejan, I.; Bonciu, S.; Eni, C.E.; Ruta, S. Romanian Medical Students’ Attitude towards and Perceived Knowledge on COVID-19 Vaccination. Vaccines 2021, 9, 854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sovicova, M.; Zibolenova, J.; Svihrova, V.; Hudeckova, H. Odds Ratio Estimation of Medical Students’ Attitudes towards COVID-19 Vaccination. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6815. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patelarou, E.; Galanis, P.; Mechili, E.A.; Argyriadi, A.; Argyriadis, A.; Asimakopoulou, E.; Brokaj, S.; Bucaj, J.; Carmona-Torres, J.M.; Cobo-Cuenca, A.I.; et al. Factors influencing nursing students’ intention to accept COVID-19 vaccination: A pooled analysis of seven European countries. Nurse Educ. Today 2021, 104, 105010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gotlib, J.; Sobierajski, T.; Jaworski, M.; Wawrzuta, D.; Borowiak, E.; Dobrowolska, B.; Dyk, D.; Gaworska-Krzeminska, A.; Grochans, E.; Kozka, M.; et al. “Vaccinate, Do Not Hesitate!”. Vaccination Readiness against COVID-19 among Polish Nursing Undergraduate Students: A National Cross-Sectional Survey. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1029. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Štěpánek, L.; Janošíková, M.; Nakládalová, M.; Štěpánek, L.; Boriková, A.; Vildová, H. Motivation to COVID-19 Vaccination and Reasons for Hesitancy in Employees of a Czech Tertiary Care Hospital: A Cross-Sectional Survey. Vaccines 2021, 9, 863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stasiuk, K.; Polak, M.; Dolinski, D.; Maciuszek, J. The Credibility of Health Information Sources as Predictors of Attitudes toward Vaccination-The Results from a Longitudinal Study in Poland. Vaccines 2021, 9, 933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rozek, L.S.; Jones, P.; Menon, A.; Hicken, A.; Apsley, S.; King, E.J. Understanding Vaccine Hesitancy in the Context of COVID-19: The Role of Trust and Confidence in a Seventeen-Country Survey. Int. J. Public Health 2021, 66, 636255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walkowiak, M.P.; Walkowiak, D. Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccination Campaign Success: Lessons Learnt from the Pandemic So Far. A Case Study from Poland. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lazarus, J.V.; Wyka, K.; Rauh, L.; Rabin, K.; Ratzan, S.; Gostin, L.O.; Larson, H.J.; El-Mohandes, A. Hesitant or Not? The Association of Age, Gender, and Education with Potential Acceptance of a COVID-19 Vaccine: A Country-level Analysis. J. Health Commun. 2020, 25, 799–807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Szmyd, B.; Karuga, F.F.; Bartoszek, A.; Staniecka, K.; Siwecka, N.; Bartoszek, A.; Blaszczyk, M.; Radek, M. Attitude and Behaviors towards SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination among Healthcare Workers: A Cross-Sectional Study from Poland. Vaccines 2021, 9, 218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Popa, A.D.; Enache, A.I.; Popa, I.V.; Antoniu, S.A.; Dragomir, R.A.; Burlacu, A. Determinants of the Hesitancy toward COVID-19 Vaccination in Eastern European Countries and the Relationship with Health and Vaccine Literacy: A Literature Review. Vaccines 2022, 10, 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10050672
Popa AD, Enache AI, Popa IV, Antoniu SA, Dragomir RA, Burlacu A. Determinants of the Hesitancy toward COVID-19 Vaccination in Eastern European Countries and the Relationship with Health and Vaccine Literacy: A Literature Review. Vaccines. 2022; 10(5):672. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10050672
Chicago/Turabian StylePopa, Alina Delia, Armand Iustinian Enache, Iolanda Valentina Popa, Sabina Antonela Antoniu, Raluca Alina Dragomir, and Alexandru Burlacu. 2022. "Determinants of the Hesitancy toward COVID-19 Vaccination in Eastern European Countries and the Relationship with Health and Vaccine Literacy: A Literature Review" Vaccines 10, no. 5: 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10050672