The Use of Military Imagery as an Exhortation for Ecclesial Unity in 1 Clement 37 and 2 Timothy 2:3–4
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Context of 1 Clement
3. The Nature of Military Imagery in 1 Clement 37
3.1. Jewish Army Imagery
3.2. Roman Army Imagery
3.3. Neither Jewish nor Roman Imagery
4. The Discipline of the Soldier in 1 Clement 37 and 2 Timothy 2:3–4
4.1. Hierarchy and Mutual Dependence in 1 Clement 37
4.2. Hierarchy and Mutual Dependence in 2 Timothy 2:3–4
4.3. An Exhortation for Ecclesial Unity in 2 Timothy 2:3–4 and 1 Clement 37
5. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
1 | Although the letter itself names no author, scholars like Kujanpää (2020, p. 141 n. 62) point out that Irenaeus connects “Clement’s time as the bishop with the sending of the letter”. Although it is difficult to sustain the view with certainty that this letter was written by Clement, I refer to the author of 1 Clement as “the author” or “Clement” for the sake of convenience. |
2 | On the dating of the letter, see, e.g., Lindemann (1992, p. 12); Gaden (2002, p. 35); Welborn (1984, pp. 34–54). |
3 | |
4 | Due to the loss of harmony among the members of the Corinthian church, Clement reports that “jealousy and envy, strife and sedition, persecution and anarchy, war and captivity” came to them (3:2). |
5 | Downs (2013, p. 417) observes, “[The] goal of ‘peace and harmony’ will be manifested in the restoration to office of the deposed leaders, accompanied by either the departure of the rebels (54:2) or the submission of repentant schismatics to the authority of the presbyters (57:1–58:2)”. |
6 | Much ink has been spilled in the attempt to explicate the characteristics of Clement’s military imagery. See, e.g., Lindemann (2005, p. 11); Jaubert (1964, pp. 78–82); Bowe (1988, pp. 127–28); Schmitt (2002, pp. 27–35); Wengst (1987, pp. 107–9); Bakke (2001, pp. 174–75). |
7 | On non-biblical Jewish traditions, for instance, see, e.g., 7:6; 31:3. On apocryphal Jewish texts, see, e.g., 17:6; 23:3–4; 34:8; 46:2. |
8 | See, e.g., Bakke (2001, pp. 83–84): “Clement’s appeal to peace and concord throughout the letter reflects a well-known formula in Hellenistic literature which discusses the issue of unity among people who belong to the same political unit. The fact that the word pair does not occur at all (as far as I know) in Jewish texts shows that this stock phrase is adopted from Hellenistic tradition”. However, as noted in this study, it is far from clear that the concept is merely Roman. |
9 | Kloppenborg (2015, pp. 68–75) suggests that “1 Clement does not promote or defend institutionalization” because “indigenous and highly varied systems of governance” in the Mediterranean world are well attested among associations. While 1 Clement may not be concerned with promoting institutionalization, the titles, such as presbyters and bishop, betray that the church order or rank (τάγμα) exists among the Corinthian believers. In light of 1 Clem 44–45, where Clement vindicates the authority of church leaders, Clement clearly underscores the aspect of order and rank. |
10 | On the significance of the term laity, Howell (2012, p. 114) points out, “Here we have the first known use of the word ‘laity’ in the sense of distinguishing it from the clergy”. A similar concern is reflected in Lona (1998, p. 434): “Der λαϊκὸς ἄνθρωπος gehört nicht zum sakralen Bereich, aber es heißt weiter, daß er an ihm angemessene Anordnungen gebunden ist”. |
11 | Cf. The author of 1 Clement also employs the so-called legendary bird “phoenix” (φοίνιξ) as an example of the resurrection (25:1–2). Roman geographers Pomponius Mela and Pliny the Elder confirm that the phoenix is unique in its kind, and the details of the preparation for his death are observed by many Roman authors. See Lona (1998, p. 303); Lindemann (1992, p. 89): “Auf Münzen im 2. Jh. erscheint der Phönix als Symbol der aeternitas Romae”. |
12 | In describing soldiers’ manner, the author repeats the ταγ—stem—εὐτάκτως and ὑποτεταγμένως. |
13 | Scholars have observed the analogy between body imagery and political unity. See, e.g., Mitchell (1991, pp. 157–64). See also Bowe (1988, pp. 129–30): “Political and social thinkers came to use the word [σύγκρασίς] in order to describe their idea of political unity as a healthy blend of different social elements in the polis. The analogy of the human body as a political image for the social body is ubiquitous in antiquity”. |
14 | On the identity of the strong and the weak, Bowe suggests that a spiritual sense is given to the strong and the weak in 1 Clement. Bowe (1988, p. 132) observes, “1 Clement 33:8 connects ‘strength’ with works of righteousness; 39:2 asks the question, ‘What is the strength of one who is a child of the earth?’ Weakness, too, is in 1 Clement more a spiritual rather than a social term: Jesus is the defender and helper of ‘our weakness’ (36:1) and Clement prays that God might raise up the weak (59:4)”. |
15 | It should also be noted that the relationship between the rich and the poor seems to be an exception in terms of mutual support. While the strong are honored by the weak, the rich are not honored by the poor. While the rich are urged to support the poor, the poor are depicted as mere recipients who give thanks to God alone (38:2). |
16 | A similar concern is reflected in Downs (2013, p. 432): “The cosmology of 1 Clement plays an important role in the author’s goal of promoting peace and harmony among the divisive Corinthians”. See also Gaden (2002, p. 37): “As part of his attempts to halt the activities of the schismatics in Corinth, and to urge upon the community a return to their former harmony and peace, Clement makes use of a ‘hymn of praise’ to God as ‘the Father and Creator of the universe’”. |
17 | On the possible relationship between the pastoral epistles and 1 Clement, see Hagner (1973, p. 231) and Harrison (1921, p. 177). This article does not focus on the historical identity of the author of 2 Timothy but on the theological witness of the letter itself: “Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus” (1:1). |
18 | Cf. Johnson (2001, p. 367) notes that the images of the soldier (2:3–4), the athlete (2:5), and the farmer (2:8–13) are “standard for Greco-Roman moral Instruction”. |
19 | 2 Timothy 2:24–26 (NRSVUE): “And the Lord’s servant must not be quarrelsome but kindly to everyone, an apt teacher, patient, correcting opponents with gentleness. God may perhaps grant that they will repent and come to know the truth and that they may escape from the snare of the devil, having been held captive by him to do his will”. |
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Kim, K. The Use of Military Imagery as an Exhortation for Ecclesial Unity in 1 Clement 37 and 2 Timothy 2:3–4. Religions 2024, 15, 985. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080985
Kim K. The Use of Military Imagery as an Exhortation for Ecclesial Unity in 1 Clement 37 and 2 Timothy 2:3–4. Religions. 2024; 15(8):985. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080985
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Kangil. 2024. "The Use of Military Imagery as an Exhortation for Ecclesial Unity in 1 Clement 37 and 2 Timothy 2:3–4" Religions 15, no. 8: 985. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080985