Applicability of Quantum Dots in Breast Cancer Diagnostic and Therapeutic Modalities—A State-of-the-Art Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Breast Cancers: Molecular Features, Histopathological Characteristics, and Clinical Management
2.1. Classification of Breast Cancers
2.2. Breast Cancer Heterogeneity and Its Basis
2.3. Breast Cancer Stem Cells
2.4. Standard Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategies
2.4.1. Breast Cancer Diagnostic Methods
2.4.2. Standard Therapies in Breast Cancer
3. Structure and Properties of Quantum Dots
3.1. Physicochemical Properties of QDs
3.2. Types of QDs
3.3. In Vivo Issues: Uptake, Biodistribution, and Clearance of Quantum Dots
3.3.1. Cellular Uptake of Quantum Dots
3.3.2. Distribution of QDs
3.3.3. Clearance of QDs
3.4. QDs-Associated Toxicity
4. Quantum Dots in Breast Cancer Diagnostics
4.1. Antibody Conjugated QD Nanoprobes
4.1.1. HER2
4.1.2. CA 15-3
4.1.3. Ki67
4.2. QD–Aptamer Conjugates
4.3. Non-Coding RNA Detection
4.4. QD-Based Probes in TNBC Detection
4.5. QD-Based Multiplexed BC Biomarker Imaging
5. Advances in QD-Based In Vivo Imaging in Breast Cancer Studies
5.1. BC Xenografts Imaging
5.2. Mapping of Lymphatic Nodes
5.3. Detection of Metastases and Micrometastases
6. Potential of Quantum Dots as a Therapeutic Modality in Breast Cancer
6.1. Phototherapy
6.2. Targeted Drug Delivery by QDs
6.2.1. Targeting Cells of Destination
6.2.2. Targeted Release
6.2.3. QD-Based Targeted Drug Delivery in Breast Cancer
6.3. Non-Coding RNA Delivery
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Diagnostic Modality | Type of QDs | Modification/Conjugated Molecule | Size | Targeted Moiety/Ligand/Other | Targeted Cell Line/Organ/Other | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antibody-conjugated QD probes | CdSe/ZnS QDs | biotinylated detection antibody | n/a | HER2-ECD | human serum | [164] |
CdS QDs, cysteamine-capped | anti-CA 15-3 antibody | ~3 nm | CA 15-3 | human serum | [165] | |
CuInS2/ZnS QDs | anti-Ki-67 monoclonal antibody | n/a | Ki67 | MDA-MB-231 and HMMECs | [169] | |
InP/ZnS QDs | anti-EGFR antibody | 3–5 nm | EGFR | mouse breast cancer xenografts | [189] | |
GQDs | single chain variable fragment of anti-EGFR antibody | <5 nm | EGFR | MDA-MB-231 | [190] | |
QD–aptamer/QD–ssDNA conjugates and other miRNA probes | CdTe QDs | ATP-aptamer, mucin-1 aptamer-conjugated gold NPs | 2.8 nm | mucin 1 (MUC1) | MCF-7 | [172] |
CQDs | complementary single-strand DNA (ssDNA) molecules | 3–8 nm | miR-21 | MCF-7 | [181] | |
CdSe/ZnS QDs | 9 nm | miR-148, miR-21 | MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 | [183] | ||
Antimonide QDs | n/a | n/a | miR-21, miR-155 | human serum | [184] | |
AuNPs/GQDs/GO | miRNA capture probes | n/a | miR-21, miR-155, miR-210 | human serum | [185] | |
Other | N-doped GQDs | phytohemagglutinin-L (PHA-L) | 3–12 nm | PHA-L | MCF-7 | [173] |
N-doped GQDs | folic acid capping | GQDs: 10 nm, conjugate: 15 nm | folate receptor (FR) | MKN-45, HT-29, MCF-7 | [194] |
Therapeutic Modality | Type of QDs Used | Conjugated Molecule | Size | Cell Line/Model | Role of QDs | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Photothermal therapy | tea polyphenol-derived CQDs | - | 1.3–3.7 nm | mouse xenografts of 4T1 cells | type I PS | [232] |
polythiophene-derived GQDs | - | 2–6 nm | mouse breast cancer xenografts | type II PS | [233] | |
N-doped GQDs/TiO2 NCs | - | 9.16 ± 2.4 nm | MDA-MB-231 and HS27 | type I/II PS | [234] | |
ZnO QDs | - | n/a | MDA-MB-231 | type I PS | [237] | |
Photodynamic therapy | CQD clathrates | MTX | 20–30 nm | HMLER (breast cancer stem cells) | PS and drug carrier | [235] |
InP/ZnS QDs | chlorin e6 | 2–3 nm | MDA-MB-231 | carrier of a PS, enhancer of energy transfer | [236] | |
Targeted drug delivery | Mg/N-modified CQDs, FA/HA-coated | epirubicin | 6–7 nm | 4T1, MCF-7 | delivery vehicles of chemotherapeutics to the tumor site, increasing their efficacy * | [252] |
CQDs | DOX | 2–6 nm | MCF-7 | [253] | ||
CQDs | DOX | CQDs: 0.5 nm, conjugates: 20 nm | MCF-7 | [254] | ||
Tf-CQDs | DOX | 1.5 nm | MCF-7 | [243] | ||
FA-coated CQDs | DOX | 1.5–8 nm | MDA-MB-231 | [255] | ||
GQDs | DOX | 5 nm | MCF-7 | [256] | ||
GQDs-cationic polymer | DOX | conjugates: <55 nm | mouse xenografts of 4T1 cells | [258] | ||
CQDs | cisplatin | 5–8 nm | MDA-MB-231 | [259] | ||
GQDs | cisplatin, anti-EGFR antibody | <5 nm | MDA-MB-231 | [194] | ||
GQDs | cisplatin | 40 nm | MCF-7 | [260] | ||
FA-coated, PEGylated GQDs | tamoxifen | 50–210 nm | MCF-7 | [262] | ||
quinic acid-coated N-doped GQDs | gemcitabine | n/a | MCF-7 | [263] | ||
Non-coding RNA/aptamer delivery | CdSe/ZnS QDs | HER2 siRNA, anti-HER2 antibodies | conjugates: 60–80 nm | SK-BR-3, MCF-7 | siRNA/drug delivery vehicles | [268] |
CQDs | HER3 siRNA, trastuzumab | 4 nm | BT-474 | [269] | ||
CdTe QDs | DOX, Bcl-2 siRNA | QDs: 26 nm, conjugates: 90 nm | MDA-MB-231 | [270] | ||
CdSe/ZnS QDs | folate receptor siRNA | ~15 nm | MCF-7 | [271] | ||
n/a | Bcl-2 and PKC siRNAs | n/a | MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-453 | fluorescence generator for tracking purposes | [272] | |
PEI-CQDs | VEGF siRNA | 3–7 nm | MDA-MB-231, mouse xenografts | siRNA delivery vehicles, protection from RNAses | [273] |
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Kunachowicz, D.; Kłosowska, K.; Sobczak, N.; Kepinska, M. Applicability of Quantum Dots in Breast Cancer Diagnostic and Therapeutic Modalities—A State-of-the-Art Review. Nanomaterials 2024, 14, 1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14171424
Kunachowicz D, Kłosowska K, Sobczak N, Kepinska M. Applicability of Quantum Dots in Breast Cancer Diagnostic and Therapeutic Modalities—A State-of-the-Art Review. Nanomaterials. 2024; 14(17):1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14171424
Chicago/Turabian StyleKunachowicz, Dominika, Karolina Kłosowska, Natalia Sobczak, and Marta Kepinska. 2024. "Applicability of Quantum Dots in Breast Cancer Diagnostic and Therapeutic Modalities—A State-of-the-Art Review" Nanomaterials 14, no. 17: 1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14171424