A Review of CIGS Thin Film Semiconductor Deposition via Sputtering and Thermal Evaporation for Solar Cell Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Amorphous Silicon (a-Si): Characterized by disorderedly organized silicon atoms, amorphous silicon differs from crystalline silicon. a-Si solar cells are more cost-effective than their crystalline counterparts due to the reduced silicon requirement. However, the fundamental limitation of this technology lies in its lower efficiency, attributed to material defects [11,12,13].
- Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): Stands out as a direct bandgap material with a higher absorption coefficient and greater chemical stability compared to a-Si. However, the main drawback of CdTe solar cells is the inclusion of cadmium (Cd), a heavy and hazardous metal [11].
- Copper Indium Gallium Di-Selenide (CIGS): A quaternary compound with a direct bandgap and a high absorption coefficient [11].
2. Properties of Chalcogenide Materials
3. Device Architecture of CIGS Solar Cells
4. Challenges with the Deposition of CIGS Thin Films Using Solution-Based Processes
5. Physical Vapor Deposition Methods Used for the Preparation of CIGS Thin Films
5.1. Working Principle of the Deposition Techniques
- Resistive Heating: This method employs a resistively heated source to evaporate the targeted material. The source is typically constructed from refractory metals such as tungsten, molybdenum, and tantalum, which possess high melting points.
- Electron Beam Evaporation: In this technique, a material is evaporated by focusing an intense electron beam on it. Electron beam evaporation addresses challenges associated with resistive heating, including contamination and the difficulty of evaporating materials with high melting points.
- An ion, often an argon ion (Ar), accelerates toward a negatively charged target.
- The accelerated ion hits the target material, leading to a series of atomic collisions.
- As a consequence of these collisions, one or more atoms from the target are ejected and become free in the form of ions or neutral particles.
5.2. Deposition of CIGS Films by Thermal Co-Evaporation
5.2.1. Three-Stage Deposition
5.2.2. Two-Stage Deposition
5.2.3. Single-Stage Deposition
5.3. Deposition of CIGS Films by Sputtering Methods
5.3.1. Two-Step Deposition
5.3.2. Single-Step Deposition
Device Structure | Deposition of CIGS | PCE (%) | FF (%) | Voc (mV) | Jsc (mA/cm2) | Device Area (cm2) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MgF2/ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | 20.8 | 79.1 | 757 | 34.8 | 0.5 | [33] | |
ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | Pulse current electrodeposition | 11.04 | 63.40 | 505 | 34.47 | 0.34 | [56] |
MgF2/ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | 15.9 | 76.6 | 649 | 31.88 | 0.437 | [72] | |
MgF2/ZnO/CdS/Cu(In,Ga)Se2/Mo | Three-stage | 18.8 | 78.6 | 678 | 35.2 | [73] | |
MgF2/ZnO/CdS/Cu (In,Ga)Se2/CuGaSe2/Mo | Two-stage | 17.7 | 77.2 | 674 | 34.0 | 0.414 | [74] |
MgF2/ZnO/CdS/Cu(In,Ga)Se2/Mo | 19.9 | 81.2 | 690 | 35.5 | 0.419 | [75] | |
ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | 17.6 | 0.79 | 671 | 33.20 | [76] | ||
ITO/ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo/PI | 13.6 | 67.23 | 620 | 32.75 | 0.5 | [78] | |
ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | 16.9 | 74.3 | 658 | 34.6 | 0.5 | [79] | |
MgF2/ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | Multi-stage | 21.7 | 79.3 | 746 | 36.6 | [81] | |
MgF2/ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | 22.6 | 80.6 | 741 | 37.8 | 0.5 | [82] | |
ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | 10.14 | 63.0 | 505 | 32.3 | 0.4 | [98] | |
MgF2/ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | One-step | 16.7 | 70.6 | 614 | 38.6 | 0.86 | [100] |
ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | Two-step | 13.5 | 70 | 530 | 36.5 | 0.86 | [102] |
ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo | 10.2 | 67.0 | 533 | 28.0 | 0.43 | [104] | |
11.2 | 67.9 | 520 | 31.0 | 0.43 | |||
13.1 | 69.9 | 563 | 33.0 |
6. Current Status, Challenges, and Future Prospects
- -
- Various types of substrates have been employed for CIGS solar cells, each offering distinct advantages. Soda–lime glass (SLG) stands out as the most commonly used substrate due to its alkali diffusion properties and suitability for relatively high-temperature CIGS solar cell production [110]. Flexible substrates have also gained attention, offering the advantage of the low-temperature deposition of CIGS thin films. Polyimide substrates, for example, have achieved an efficiency of 18.7% [111]. In cases where high-temperature processing is required, ceramics can serve as flexible substrates, providing an alternative to rigid SLG [110].
- -
- The Mo thin film has demonstrated its effectiveness as a suitable back contact for CIGS solar cells. However, the challenge lies in simultaneously achieving both good adhesion and low resistivity in this material [111]. To address this, a bilayer approach is often employed instead of a single layer. The first layer is designed for high adhesion, while the second layer serves as a low-resistivity thin film [112]. The selenization process, leading to the formation of a MoSe2 layer, has been found to enhance the adhesion of the CIGS thin film on Mo, preventing interface recombination [113]. The thickness of the MoSe2 layer is a crucial factor influencing its impact on the Mo/CIGS interface properties [50], although controlling its thickness during the selenization step can be challenging [110]. To address this, an alternative approach is to deposit all cell layers using sputtering with an interlayer of MoSe2, providing greater control over the process.
- -
- The most commonly used buffer layer for CIGS solar cells is CdS. However, CdS has a relatively low band gap of about 2.4 eV, which can result in the absorption of light, particularly in short wavelengths [114]. To address this issue and replace the toxic cadmium with more environmentally friendly elements, various alternatives have been explored. These alternatives include ZnO [115], ZnSe [116], Zn(O,S) [117], ZnMgO [118], ZnSnO [119], and In2S3 [120].
- -
- Indium scarcity and high demand might contribute to an increase in the cost of CIGS solar cells. CZTS-based solar cells were developed to substitute Zn for In; however, their power conversion efficiencies are still very low to compete with CIGS counterparts. The substitution of more In for Ga is another way to reduce In usage, which also comes with the advantage of a larger band gap, allowing its use as a top cell in tandem devices. An alternative approach consists of reducing the thickness of the absorber layer so that it is lower than 400 nm [121]. Recent numerical models predict the possibility of reaching efficiencies as high as 21% for these ultra-thin solar cells [122]. This would reduce the material use and increase the production throughput.
- -
- The “tandem solar cell” approach involves combining two or more junctions in a solar cell. In this configuration, the top junction is designed to absorb high-energy photons, while the bottom junction is responsible for absorbing low-energy photons [123]. One promising tandem solar cell configuration is the perovskite/CIGS tandem solar cell, which has demonstrated an efficiency exceeding 24% according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). This tandem configuration leverages the strengths of both perovskite and CIGS materials to enhance overall solar cell performance.
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Machkih, K.; Oubaki, R.; Makha, M. A Review of CIGS Thin Film Semiconductor Deposition via Sputtering and Thermal Evaporation for Solar Cell Applications. Coatings 2024, 14, 1088. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14091088
Machkih K, Oubaki R, Makha M. A Review of CIGS Thin Film Semiconductor Deposition via Sputtering and Thermal Evaporation for Solar Cell Applications. Coatings. 2024; 14(9):1088. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14091088
Chicago/Turabian StyleMachkih, Karima, Rachid Oubaki, and Mohammed Makha. 2024. "A Review of CIGS Thin Film Semiconductor Deposition via Sputtering and Thermal Evaporation for Solar Cell Applications" Coatings 14, no. 9: 1088. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14091088