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Article

Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Properties, and Cosmetic Applications of Selected Cold-Pressed Plant Oils from Seeds

by
Monika Michalak
1,*,
Ewelina Błońska-Sikora
1,
Natalia Dobros
2,
Olga Spałek
1,
Agnieszka Zielińska
2 and
Katarzyna Paradowska
2
1
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical College, Jan Kochanowski University, IX Wieków Kielc 19, 35-317 Kielce, Poland
2
Department of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Cosmetics 2024, 11(5), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics11050153
Submission received: 6 July 2024 / Revised: 28 August 2024 / Accepted: 2 September 2024 / Published: 6 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Cosmetics—Recent Advances and Perspectives)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Plant oils are currently not only an essential element of the healthy eating pyramid, but also a valuable cosmetic material, which, in line with the eco-friendly trends of recent years, is effectively replacing petroleum-derived fatty ingredients. The fatty acids, phenolic compounds, pigments, and vitamins (e.g., A and E) present in plant oils contribute to their health-promoting properties, including antioxidant activity. This study assessed the contents of carotenoids and chlorophylls, as well as the antioxidant properties of 10 selected plant oils. Fenugreek seed oil was shown to have the highest total content of carotenoids, and the most β-carotene. Chokeberry and rosehip oils also contained large amounts of provitamin A, in comparison to the other oils tested. Lycopene was the dominant compound in black currant and rosehip seed oils. Among chlorophyll pigments, elderberry oil had the highest content of chlorophyll a, while black currant oil had large amounts of both chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. The antioxidant properties of the cold pressed oils obtained from selected seeds and fruit stones, assessed by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy as the ability to interact with the DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical, can be ranked as follows: pomegranate > fenugreek > poppy > black currant > chokeberry > rosehip > perilla > elderberry > carrot > fig. The results of this study showed that these plant oils are valuable natural materials with antioxidant properties, which can be an important complement to synthetic antioxidants due to their additional skin care properties.

1. Introduction

Cold-pressed oils are a special group of oils of plant origin [1]. They are obtained by mechanical procedures such as pressing, without the use of heat. They can only be purified by washing with water, precipitating, filtrating, and centrifuging. The method of cold pressing oils is relatively simple and inexpensive and does not require the use of solvents. The value of the resulting oils depends primarily on the quality of the raw material used, which is determined by factors such as the time of harvesting, the maturity of the material, and the stages before pressing (harvesting, drying, and storage). Plant oils consist mainly of triacylglycerols and fat-soluble compounds such as waxes, dyes (carotenes and chlorophylls), vitamins, A, D, E, phospholipids, and other lipids such as free fatty acids and unsaponifiable substances [2]. Oils obtained by cold-pressing have a high content of health-promoting components typical of the raw material. In addition to fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), oil components such as tocopherols, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and phytosterols deserve special attention [3,4].
Many oils exhibit unique flavours, fragrances, and special properties important for cosmetics and therapeutic products. Among plant oils, cold-pressed oils are considered higher quality and promoted as specialty oils [5]. Interesting examples of oils used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries include chokeberry, elderberry, black currant, rosehip, fig, pomegranate, fenugreek, poppy, carrot and perilla oil. Black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliott) belongs to the family Rosaceae. Chokeberry oil has a high content of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs (especially linoleic acid), tocopherols, and carotenoids [6,7]. Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) belongs to the family Adoxaceae. Elderberry oil is rich in fatty acids. The most important of these are linoleic, oleic, and linolenic acids. It also contains phytosterols and vitamin E [8,9]. Black currant (Ribes nigrum L.) belongs to the family Grossulariaceae. Black currant oil contains 78% PUFAs, including large amounts of γ-linolenic and α-linolenic acid. In addition, bioactive compounds such as tocopherols, polyphenolic compounds, sterols, and small amounts of carotenoids and chlorophylls are present in this oil [10,11,12]. Rosehip (Rosa canina L.) belongs to the family Rosaceae. Rosehip oil is a source of saturated (palmitic acid, stearic acid, and myristic acid) and unsaturated (α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid, and a small amount of palmitoleic acid) fatty acids. It also contains phytosterols, tocopherols, carotenoids, and polyphenolic compounds (mainly p-coumaric and ferulic acid methyl ester) [13,14]. Fig (Ficus carica L.) belongs to the family Moraceae. Fig oil contains high levels of α-linolenic and linoleic acid, as well as vitamin E (mainly γ-tocopherol), polyphenolic compounds, and sterols [15,16]. Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) belongs to the family Punicaceae. Pomegranate oil is rich in PUFAs (up to 91.53%), followed by MUFAs (up to 7.55%) and saturated fatty acids (up to 6.82%). This oil is a particular source of punicic acid. In addition to fatty acids, pomegranate oil contains sterols, triterpenes, tocopherols, and isoflavones, mainly genistein and daidzein [5,17,18]. Fenugreek (Trigonella-foenum graecum L.) belongs to the bean family (Fabaceae). Oil extracted from fenugreek contains fatty acids such as linoleic, linolenic, oleic, palmitic, stearic, and arachidic acid. In addition, it is a source of magnesium, iron, manganese, and other substances beneficial to the body [19,20]. Poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) belongs to the family Papaveraceae. Poppy oil is a source of linoleic acid, oleic acid, and palmitic acid. Moreover, it contains large amounts of γ- and α-tocopherol and sterols (β-sitosterol, campesterol, Δ5-avenasterol) [21,22]. Carrot (Daucus carota L.) belongs to the family Apiaceae. Carrot oil is rich in aromatic and phenolic compounds, sterols, and fatty acids, mainly oleic and linoleic acid. It also contains petroselinic acid, a rare fatty acid and one of the most important fatty acids in the Apiaceae family [23,24]. Perilla (Perilla frutescence L.) belongs to the family Lamiaceae. Perilla oil is a rich source of PUFAs and MUFAs, including α-linolenic, oleic, and linoleic acid. The oil also contains phytosterols and tocopherols [25,26].
Plant oils are used in cosmetic formulations for their biological properties (e.g., stabilising cell membranes and anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory effects) or as carriers of other active substances. Many biologically active compounds (vitamins, phospholipids, hormones, or plant pigments) can be dissolved in plant oils, so they can be the basis for the administration of other substances. The cosmetic effect of plant oils is mainly to soften, moisturise, and regenerate the epidermis. Oils with a high content of essential fatty acids (EFAs) have a particularly beneficial impact on the skin. Thanks to fatty acids, which, along with ceramides and cholesterol, make up the intercellular cement, the skin can act as an effective protective barrier, maintaining the balance between the external and internal environments of the body and protecting against chemical and physical agents and bacterial infections. The intercellular cement also prevents the diffusion of water from the living layers of the epidermis to the surface of the skin, thus acting as a barrier to reduce transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and ensure adequate hydration of the epidermis [1,27]. The external and internal supplementation of PUFAs is relevant in maintaining the appearance and function of the skin, as the epidermal keratinocytes do not produce the enzymes delta-6- and delta-5-desaturase, involved in the metabolism of the extremely important acids of the omega-6 series, including linoleic acid (LA) and γ-linolenic acid (GLA). A deficiency of, e.g., linoleic acid, which is part of ceramide 1 and plays an essential role in cement cohesion, is associated with symptoms of dry skin [28]. In addition, a deficiency of essential fatty acids can cause reduced sebum fluidity, which is associated with the plugging of sebaceous gland mouths, the formation of blackheads, and inflammation [1,27]. In combating the signs of skin ageing, oils are important because they are a rich source of biologically active compounds, including plant pigments, polyphenols, and vitamins with antioxidant properties [29]. Plant oils containing EFAs and other bioactive ingredients are important in the care of various skin types, including those with dermatological problems (Table 1).
An important issue is that cold-pressed oils, which are valuable sources of unsaturated fatty acids, are susceptible to oxidation processes, resulting in the formation of lipid oxidation products that can adversely affect the sensory quality of the oil. For this reason, the content of constituents with antioxidant activity in these oils is important. Moreover, bioactive compounds in cold-pressed oils which scavenge free radicals and protect against oxidation contribute to the proper functioning of all organs in the human body and exhibit skin health-promoting properties [41,42].
Therefore, the objective of the present study was to assess the contents of carotenoids and chlorophylls and confirm the antioxidant properties of ten selected plant oils which can be potentially used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical products.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material

Ten different unrefined oils cold pressed in a traditional way (Oleowita, Milicz, Poland) (Table 2) from chokeberry, elderberry, black currant, rosehip, fig, pomegranate, fenugreek, poppy, carrot, and perilla seeds were assessed in the present study. All of the oils tested had a mild, specific odour, with a perceptible plant smell characteristic of the individual species.

2.2. Extraction and Analysis of Chlorophylls and Carotenoids by Spectrophotometric Method

A volume of 15 mL of acetone/n-hexane mixture (6:4) was added to 1 g of oil, then mixed for ten minutes, and sonicated for another five minutes. The whole process was repeated twice. Following that, obtained samples were analysed using a spectrophotometric method (Evolution 60S UV-Visible spectrophotometer Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The absorbance was measured at 453, 505, 645, and 663 nm. The analysis was performed in triplicate. The following equations were used to perform the calculations:
Chlorophyll a: C (Ch a) [mg/100 mL] = (0.999 × A663) − (0.0989 × A645)
Chlorophyll b: C (Ch a) [mg/100 mL] = −(0.328 × A663) + (1.77 × A645)
Lycopene: CL [mg/100 mL] = −(0.0458 × A663) + (0.204 × A645) + (0.372 × A505) − (0.0806 × A453)
β-carotene: C(βC) [mg/100 mL] = (0.216 × A663) − (1.22 × A645) − (0.304 × A505) + (0.452 × A453)
All results were demonstrated as micrograms per gram of oil weight [µg/g].
The spectrophotometric method was used to obtain the UV-Vis spectra of oils and the β-carotene standard (≥97%, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA). A total of 1 milligram of the standard was dissolved in 10 mL of n-hexane/acetone mixture and then diluted 100 times. The spectra were recorded for wavelengths ranging from 350 to 700 nm.

2.3. Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity

The antioxidant activity was determined by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy (MiniScope MS 200 EPR, Magnettech GmbH, Berlin, Germany) using the DPPH radical (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl). EPR measurements were performed under the following parameters: central field 330.48 mT, microwave power 12 mW, modulation amplitude 0.10 mT, sweep range 9.92 mT, measurement duration 20 s, and room temperature at 25 °C. In the case of oils, 50 µL of sample and 0.5 mL of DPPH solution were placed into an Eppendorf tube. The samples were mixed and left in the dark at room temperature for 20 min. The analysis was performed in triplicate (double integral of the signal) for 3 samples of each oil. A blank test was performed by replacing the oil with ethanol. Oils were used as a positive control, while DPPH solution plus ethanol was used as a negative control. The results are expressed as the amount of mg of the DPPH radical that was neutralised by 1 mL of the oil.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Statistical evaluation was performed using Statistica 13 software (StatSoft, Kraków, Poland). Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA was used to present the differences between mean values for carotenoids and chlorophylls and antioxidant activity. Intergroup differences were assessed by Tukey’s post-hoc test (n = 3).

3. Results and Discussion

Numerous studies have dealt with methods of obtaining plant oils, their oxidative stability and content of bioactive substances, and their potential uses. Cold-pressed oils, a source of substances with potential health benefits, are gaining popularity in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors. The present study focused on plant oils that have long been known, as well as those that have recently been rediscovered. The special value of cold-pressed oils lies in the fact that they are a rich source of various biologically active compounds, including carotenoids, chlorophylls, tocopherols, polyphenols, as well as monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). MUFAs are represented by oleic acid, belonging to the omega-9 series (ω-9 or n-9). PUFAs include fatty acids from the omega-3 (ω-3 or n-3) and omega-6 (ω-6 or n-6) series, represented by α-linolenic (ALA) and linoleic (LA) acids, respectively [1]. Omega-3 and omega-6 acids play a relevant role in the growth, development, and functioning of all organs in the human body [43]. They cannot be synthesised by the body, so they must be supplied from an external source [1]. Plant oils are an important source of ALA and LA. Among the oils tested in the present study, perilla, fig, and elderberry seed oils had the highest content of ALA, while LA was the dominant acid in poppy, fenugreek, chokeberry, rosehip, and black currant oils (Table 2). PUFAs have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. It is very likely that a diet rich in omega-3 acids, but also having a favourable n-3/n-6 ratio, can alleviate inflammation and improve the condition of the skin [44,45]. Fatty acids are known to be components of cell membrane phospholipids [46]. The composition of fatty acids in cell membranes plays a key role in maintaining good skin condition, is responsible for hydration and immunity, and has an impact on skin ageing [47,48].
Many compounds with high biological activity are easily soluble in plant oils. These include plant pigments—carotenoids and chlorophylls. Their contents in plant oils depends on the plant species, the maturity of the material, and the technology by which the oil is obtained [1]. Owing to the properties of plant pigments (colour and physiological activity), they continue to be of great interest in cosmetics production, as well as in medicine. β-carotene (provitamin A) and lycopene are carotenoids playing important roles in the human body, including prevention of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases (diabetes and obesity), as well as combating various types of cancer (such as breast, prostate, lung, colon, and skin cancer) [41]. Carotenoids promote skin health and skin care and protect the skin against the adverse impact of external factors [49]. Moreover, β-carotene and lycopene, alongside lutein and astaxanthin, are the carotenoids with the strongest antioxidant properties. As effective free radical scavengers, they protect cell membrane lipids against oxidation and degradation (i.e., lipid peroxidation) [41,42]. The bioactivity of chlorophylls, on the other hand, is attributed to their ability to act as antimutagens and anticarcinogens, as well as antioxidant agents. Their unique chemical structure (as complex molecules consisting of a porphyrin ring, a magnesium ion, and an attached hydrocarbon tail) allows chlorophylls to scavenge damaging free radicals, mitigate DNA damage, and modulate cellular processes involved in disease development [50]. Therefore, with respect to the potential applications of oils in skin health and preventive care, it is important to determine the content of these compounds in the analysed oils (Table 3).
Chlorophyll a and β-carotene were dominant in most of the oils analysed (Table 3). The highest values of chlorophyll a were observed for elderberry oil (55.79 µg/g), black currant oil (48.45 µg/g), and carrot oil (11.23 µg/g), while the highest contents of β-carotene were obtained for fenugreek oil (32.90 µg/g), chokeberry oil (20.36 µg/g), and rosehip oil (16.45 µg/g) (Figure 1). Lycopene, on the other hand, was the dominant compound in rosehip (4.71 µg/g) and black currant (4.51 µg/g) oils, while chlorophyll b was abundant in black currant oil (10.50 µg/g). The lowest contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, lycopene, and β-carotene were obtained for pomegranate oil (0.55; 0.88; 0.14; 1.87 µg/g), poppy oil (2.18; 3.50; 1.22; 0.00 µg/g), and fig oil (2.31; 4.28; 1.62; 1.99 µg/g).
A review of the literature indicates varied contents of carotenoids in seed oils. For example, the contents of these bioactive compounds in seed oils were 11.44–14.76 µg/100 g) for chokeberry [51], 10.07–38.0 µg/100 g for black currant [51,52], 15.37 µg/100 g for fenugreek [53], and up to 21.88 µg/100 g for rosehip [54]. Some of the oils were tested for the content of major carotenoids, e.g., β-carotene (100.66–119.08 mg/kg) [51] and lutein (10.1–30.8 µg/100 g) [52] in black currant seed oil; lutein (1040 µg/100 g) and β-carotene (90 µg/100 g) in perilla seed oil [55]; and lutein (530 µg/100 g) and β-carotene (1100 µg/100 g) in rosehip oil [56].
For plant oils used in cosmetics, the content of bioactive compounds, including plant pigments, plays an important role. However, it is worth noting here that during storage of plant oils, photochemical reactions involving photosensitive compounds, including chlorophyll pigments, are the most important source of singlet oxygen [57]. Chlorophyll, as a photosensitiser, allows oxygen to be converted to a singlet form which in turn initiates the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, so its level in edible oils should not exceed 50 mg/kg [51,58]. In oil production, however, nearly all chlorophyll is entirely removed during the refining process due to the unattractive colour it gives oil [51]. In addition, a forms of chlorophyll undergo thermal degradation more quickly than b forms [57]. Therefore, during storage, particular attention should be paid to elderberry, black currant, and carrot oils, which contain the most chlorophyll a. On the other hand, there are reports that chlorophyll and its degradation products (such as pheophytin) have the ability to scavenge peroxyl and other free radicals, thereby strongly inhibiting lipid oxidation during storage of soybean and rapeseed oils [59]. Similarly, many in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that carotenoids can have both pro- and antioxidant effects. At the same time, however, many studies emphasise the health-promoting properties of carotenoids and their beneficial effects on the condition of skin [42,49,57]. In cosmetics, carotenoid pigments, unlike chlorophyll with its unattractive colour, are not only desirable in oils due to their antioxidant activity, but also give oil an attractive yellow colour. Given the above, among the oils tested in the present study, fenugreek, chokeberry, and rosehip oil are worth mentioning as valuable cosmetic materials which are significant sources of β-carotene.
As mentioned above, the levels of β-carotene and chlorophyll, but also the methods of obtaining and preserving plant oils, affect their oxidative stability. Unfavourable changes in oils during their production are inevitable. Cold-pressed oils, however, due to the presence of antioxidants, have the highest oxidative stability [58,60]. Moreover, the results of the study indicate that cold-pressed oils are a valuable natural material with antioxidant properties. To our knowledge, only a few studies have been conducted to evaluate the antioxidant properties of these plant oils. Other researchers have measured the scavenging activity of pomegranate oil [61,62], black currant oil [51], rosehip oil [13], perilla oil [55], fenugreek and poppy oils [63], and chokeberry oil [51] against a stable 1,1-dipenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical using spectrophotometric methods. This is the first study in which the antioxidant properties of these plant oils were measured by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. EPR is the most sensitive method for the detection of free radicals. It also has the advantage of being able to measure turbid and intensely coloured samples, as in the case of tested plant oils. The DPPH radical reacts with reducing compounds and a reduction in the intensity of its spectrum is monitored. The reduction in radical concentration is directly proportional to the concentration and activity of the antioxidant compounds. The plant oils tested in the present study were shown to possess varying free radical scavenging abilities. With respect to antioxidant properties, they can be arranged as follows: pomegranate oil > fenugreek oil > poppy oil > black currant oil > chokeberry oil > rosehip oil > perilla oil > elderberry oil > carrot oil > fig oil (Table 4).
Pomegranate oil had the highest DPPH free radical scavenging capacity, indicating the strongest antioxidant potential of the oils tested. At the same time, according to our study, this oil had the lowest content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, lycopene, and β-carotene. The results obtained may indicate that the antioxidant properties of the oils are influenced by the content of other specific constituents, as, e.g., punicic acid in the case of pomegranate seed oil. This rare acid, representing conjugated fatty acids, exhibits a high antioxidation activity. In addition, punicic acid shows anti-inflammatory and anti-oedema properties. The high punicic acid content and the richness of flavonoids are responsible for inhibiting the activity of prostaglandins, making pomegranate seed oil effective in the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases, such as acne vulgaris. Moreover, the isoflavones contained in this oil (mainly genistein and daidzein) increase skin density and stimulate the biosynthesis of collagen, elastin, and hyaluronic acid, making pomegranate seed oil a raw material indicated for the care of mature skin lacking firmness with signs of photo-ageing [5].
Until recently, natural cold-pressed oils were mainly used for consumption, but they are currently increasingly applied in skin care [64]. The cold-pressing method is a very simple technology, which is environmentally clean (with nearly no pollution of the environment) and does not require large amounts of energy or major investment outlays. This has contributed to the popularity of this method, which is in line with the trend of ‘naturalness’ observed in the cosmetic industry in recent years. According to one definition of a natural cosmetic, as a ‘product which is embellished and nurtured by natural substances, friendly to the skin and environment, conducive to health’ [65], cold-pressed oils may be classified as natural cosmetics. For demanding consumers, in addition to the composition of a cosmetic product and environmentally friendly packaging, sensory attributes are an important consideration. In the case of plant oils applied topically to the skin, parameters such as aroma, appearance, consistency, spreadability, and absorbability are important, as well as potential contact allergies and irritating effects. Ligęza et al. [64] carried out an application study in this regard using 80 volunteers (64 women and 16 men) from 18 to 65 years of age and 13 oils obtained from the company Oleowita (Milicz, Poland): chokeberry, black currant, elderberry, raspberry, apricot, tomato, strawberry, broccoli, black cumin, hemp, safflower, milk thistle, and coconut oil. According to the participants, safflower oil had the best appearance (100% positive opinions), coconut oil had the most pleasant smell (70% positive opinions), and black currant oil was best absorbed (85% positive opinions). To the best of our knowledge, there have been few in vitro or in vivo studies assessing the potential uses of the unconventional cold-pressed oils tested in the present study as ingredients in cosmetic formulations or as cosmetics. For example, Zilles et al. [66] very recently provided new evidence of the antioxidant and depigmenting efficacy of an oil-in-water nanoemulsion containing rosehip oil and kojic dipalmitate, the esterified form of kojic acid. Another study used histological and immunohistochemical analysis to evaluate the healing activity of nanoemulsions prepared with 15% sunflower and 3% rosehip oils in wounds induced in human organotypic skin explant culture [67]. Truong et al. [68] assessed the hair growth-promoting activity of rosehip seed oil in a C57BL/6 mouse model. Other researchers, in an interventional nonrandomised clinical trial, showed that a cosmetic cream containing Punica granatum seed oil and Croton lechleri resin extract had a positive effect on prevention and treatment of striae distensae [69]. In addition, pomegranate seed oil exhibits estrogenic, protective, and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as increasing collagen synthesis and contributing to the strengthening of the stratum corneum. Therefore, in cosmetic products, it is used as an active ingredient in anti-wrinkle and irritant-alleviating creams [5]. Given the small number of scientific studies confirming the biological properties and potential uses of natural cold-pressed oils in cosmetic products, the present study and further research in this area are necessary as an important source of information for both consumers and manufacturers of cosmetic products.

4. Conclusions

In the present study, fenugreek seed oil was shown to have the highest total carotenoid content, as well as the highest β-carotene content. Lycopene was the predominant compound in black currant and rosehip seed oils. Among chlorophyll pigments, elderberry oil had the highest chlorophyll a content, while black currant oil contained high amounts of both chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. Of the oils tested, pomegranate seed oil had the best antioxidant properties, assessed by EPR spectroscopy as the ability to interact with the stable DPPH radical. The results obtained may indicate that the antioxidant properties of the oils are influenced not only by the content of plant pigments, but also by the content of other bioactive compounds, e.g., tocopherols, polyphenols, or such specific constituents as punicic acid in the case of pomegranate seed oil. The results demonstrate that plant oils tested in this study are a valuable natural material with antioxidant properties and can be an important complement to synthetic antioxidants due to their additional skin care properties Moreover, natural plant oils act synergistically with synthetic antioxidants to reduce their concentration in a cosmetic product. To sum up, plant oils are a valuable raw material for eco-cosmetic manufacturers, as well as for consumers who prefer natural ingredients in cosmetics.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, M.M.; methodology, A.Z. and K.P.; formal analysis, M.M., E.B.-S. and N.D.; investigation, M.M., E.B.-S. and N.D.; resources, M.M., A.Z. and K.P.; writing—original draft preparation, M.M., O.S. and N.D.; writing—review and editing, M.M. and K.P.; visualisation, M.M. and N.D.; supervision, K.P. and A.Z.; project administration, M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Cosmetics 11 00153 g001
Figure 1. UV-Vis spectra of tested oils containing chlorophyll a and β-carotene: 1. chokeberry oil (red line), 2. elderberry oil (grey line), 3. black currant oil (pink line), 4. rosehip oil (blue line), 5. fig oil (brown line), 6. pomegranate oil (yellow line), 7. fenugreek oil (green line), 8. poppy oil (pale green line), 9. carrot oil (violet line), 10. perilla oil (orange line), β-carotene standard (black line).
Figure 1. UV-Vis spectra of tested oils containing chlorophyll a and β-carotene: 1. chokeberry oil (red line), 2. elderberry oil (grey line), 3. black currant oil (pink line), 4. rosehip oil (blue line), 5. fig oil (brown line), 6. pomegranate oil (yellow line), 7. fenugreek oil (green line), 8. poppy oil (pale green line), 9. carrot oil (violet line), 10. perilla oil (orange line), β-carotene standard (black line).
Cosmetics 11 00153 g001
Table 1. Characteristics of tested oils and their potential use in skin care and treatment.
Table 1. Characteristics of tested oils and their potential use in skin care and treatment.
INCIProperties/ApplicationRef.
Aronia melanocarpa seed oilTired, mature skin; exfoliating, soothing for irritated skin after depilation and sunbathing[7,30]
Sambucus nigra seed oilAntioxidant properties; anti-ageing and revitalising cosmetics and products for dyed hair[30]
Ribes nigrum seed oilProtective and antioxidant properties; anti-wrinkle ingredient, strongly regenerating and intensively conditioning; dry and sensitive skin; psoriasis, atopic dermatitis[27,30]
Rosa canina seed oilWound healing and antioxidant properties; high potential to act as natural UV filters, skin vitaliser, and skin barrier repairing; post-surgical scars (reduces atrophy, dyschromia, and discolouration); for sensitive skin; anti-ageing, anti-cellulite cosmetics[27,30,31,32,33,34]
Ficus carica seed oilDry, ageing skin; anti-cellulite and massage; hair styling and shine products[30,35]
Punica granatum seed oilAnti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties regenerating, revitalising, firming, anti-ageing, discolouring activity; effectively soothing sunburnt skin and minor skin injuries; high potential to act as natural UV filters; mature, dry, and peeling skin; used for the treatment of Acne rosacea and Acne vulgaris, psoriasis, eczema [5,30,31,34,36]
Trigonella foenum-graecum seed oilCouperose skin requiring revitalisation; supports epidermal regeneration after dermatological treatments; antimicrobial agent; prevents greasy scalp and hair loss[30,37]
Papaver rhoeas seed oilSensitive and vascular skin; anti-cellulite cosmetics and products for hair which is greasy at the roots and dry at the ends[30]
Daucus carota sativa seed oilRegenerative activity; dry, ageing skin with pigmentation disorders; products for the scalp, hair and weakened nails; high potential to act as natural UV filters[30,38,39,40]
Perilla ocymoides seed oilAnti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, antioxidant activity; skin with visible signs of fatigue, oily skin, and acne; products for rough hair and hair in need of regeneration[30]
INCI, International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients.
Table 2. Physicochemical properties of tested oils.
Table 2. Physicochemical properties of tested oils.
No.Oil NameTransparency/
Colour		Fatty Acids Composition (%) *
C16:0C16:1C18:0C18:1C18:2C18:3
1.Chokeberry
seed oil		No clear oily liquid/dark yellow6.0–9.0nd0.5–3.015.0–30.057.0–69.01.0–3.0
2.Elderberry seed oilNo clear oily liquid/green5.0–7.2nd1.0–3.012.4–19.037.0–46.230.0–40.0
3.Black currant seed oilNo clear oily liquid/dark green4.0–7.0nd0.5–4.015.0–28.050.0–65.02.0–16.0
4.Rosehip
seed oil		No clear oily liquid/yellow4.0–8.0nd2.0–5.029.0–38.050.0–65.00.2–7.0
5.Fig seed
oil		No clear oily liquid/yellow7.0–10.0nd3.0–5.015.0–25.028.0–45.028.0–44.0
6.Pomegranate
seed oil		No clear oily liquid/yellow2.0–7.0nd2.0–5.010.0–25.017.0–40.0nd
7.Fenugreek
seed oil		No clear oily liquid/yellow5.0–15.0nd0.5–9.010.0–25.054.0–75.00.5–5.0
8.Poppy seed oilNo clear oily liquid/yellow8.0–12.50.05–0.8nd16.0–25.065.0–70.0nd
9.Carrot
seed oil		No clear oily liquid/yellow to green3.0–7.0nd0.05–4.073.0–85.05.0–15.00.0–1.0
10Perilla
seed oil		No clear oily liquid/yellow5.0–8.0nd0.5–4.011.0–25.012.0–20.044.0–67.0
C16:0—palmitic acid, C16:1—palmitoleic acid, C18:0—stearic acid, C18:1—oleic acid, C18:2—linoleic acid, C18:3—α-linolenic acid, nd—not detected. * Oil composition according to the manufacturer’s declaration [30].
Table 3. Carotenoids and chlorophyll content (µg/g ± SD) in tested oils.
Table 3. Carotenoids and chlorophyll content (µg/g ± SD) in tested oils.
No.OilChlorophyll aChlorophyll bLycopeneβ-Carotene
1.Chokeberry4.81 ± 0.17 a3.38 ± 0.29 a0.67 ± 0.05 a20.36 ± 0.28 a
2.Elderberry55.79 ± 0.18 b4.04 ± 0.34 b3.51 ± 0.16 b11.40 ± 0.38 b
3.Black currant48.45 ± 0.16 c10.50 ± 0.25 c4.51 ± 0.10 c7.34 ± 0.23 c
4.Rosehip0.81 ± 0.00 d1.30 ± 0.00 d4.71 ± 0.06 c16.45 ± 0.05 d
5.Fig2.31 ± 0.16 e4.28 ± 0.25 b1.62 ± 0.08 d1.99 ± 0.21 e
6.Pomegranate0.55 ± 0.00 d0.88 ± 0.00 e0.14 ± 0.01 e1.87 ± 0.08 e
7.Fenugreekndndnd32.90 ± 0.08 f
8.Poppy2.18 ± 0.00 e3.50 ± 0.00 a1.22 ± 0.05 fnd
9.Carrot11.23 ± 0.17 f2.57 ± 0.06 f0.96 ± 0.07 g6.88 ± 0.09 g
10.Perilla4.92 ± 0.19 a1.40 ± 0.35 d0.17 ± 0.10 e8.16 ± 0.27 h
nd, not detected. Values (averages ± SD, n = 3) within a column with different letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).
Table 4. Scavenging ability of tested plant oils for the DPPH radical.
Table 4. Scavenging ability of tested plant oils for the DPPH radical.
No.OilDPPH—EPRNo.OilDPPH—EPR
1.Chokeberry7.46 ± 0.01 a6.Pomegranate14.83 ± 0.2 f
2.Elderberry6.65 ± 0.02 b7.Fenugreek7.77 ± 0.02 c
3.Black currant7.61 ± 0.06 c8.Poppy7.64 ± 0.1 c
4.Rosehip7.21 ± 0.01 d9.Carrot6.35 ± 0.05 g
5.Fig5.3 ± 0.03 e10.Perilla6.67 ± 0.09 b
DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging expressed as (mg/mL ± SD); EPR—electron paramagnetic resonance. Values (averages ± SD, n = 3) within a column with different letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).
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Michalak, M.; Błońska-Sikora, E.; Dobros, N.; Spałek, O.; Zielińska, A.; Paradowska, K. Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Properties, and Cosmetic Applications of Selected Cold-Pressed Plant Oils from Seeds. Cosmetics 2024, 11, 153. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics11050153

AMA Style

Michalak M, Błońska-Sikora E, Dobros N, Spałek O, Zielińska A, Paradowska K. Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Properties, and Cosmetic Applications of Selected Cold-Pressed Plant Oils from Seeds. Cosmetics. 2024; 11(5):153. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics11050153

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Michalak, Monika, Ewelina Błońska-Sikora, Natalia Dobros, Olga Spałek, Agnieszka Zielińska, and Katarzyna Paradowska. 2024. "Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Properties, and Cosmetic Applications of Selected Cold-Pressed Plant Oils from Seeds" Cosmetics 11, no. 5: 153. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics11050153

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