Plant Secondary Metabolites: The Weapons for Biotic Stress Management
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology of Review
3. Major Plant Secondary Metabolites Involved in Biotic Stress Tolerance
3.1. Terpenes
3.2. Sulfur-Containing Secondary Metabolites
3.2.1. Glucosinolates (GSLs)
3.2.2. Sulfur-Containing Phytoalexins
Metabolite | Category | Plant/Family | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Camalexin | Sulfur-containing phytolexin | Brassicaceae members | [39] |
Glycosides | Glucosinolates | Cruciferae | [32] |
5-(3-buten-1-ynyl)-2,2′-bithiophene | Dithiophene | Tagetes species | [35] |
Allicin | Thiosulfinates | Garlic | [36] |
3.3. Lectins
3.4. Nitrogen-Containing Secondary Metabolites
3.4.1. Alkaloids
3.4.2. Cyanogenic Glycosides
3.5. Phenolic Compounds
3.5.1. Flavonoids
3.5.2. Coumarins
3.5.3. Lignin, Suberin, and Cutin
3.5.4. Tannins
3.5.5. Biphenyls and Dibenzofuran
Phenolic Compound | Plant Name | Type of Stress | Response of Phenolic Acids to Stress | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flavonoid | Cajanus platycarpus | Herbivory by Helicoverpa armigera | Increase in flavonoid content | [65] |
Scopoletin | Hevea brasiliensis | Fungal infection by Microcyclus ulei | Increase in scopoletin level | [69] |
Coumarin, scopoletin | Plantanus occidentalis | Fungal infection by Ceratocystis fimbriata and Ceratocystis platani | Increase in coumarin scopoletin level | [69] |
Lignin | Pinus nigra | Blight disease by Sphaeropsis sapinea | Lignification increases | [74] |
Lignin | Triticum spps. | Stem rust by Puccinia graminis | Increase in lignin level | [74] |
Caffeic acid | Zea mays | Leaf blight by Glomerella Graminicola or Cochliobolus heterostrophus | Increase in two phenolic caffeic acid esters | [88] |
Chlorogenic acid, cinnamic acid | Vigna radiata | Infection by Meloidogyne javanica (root-knot nematode) | Increase in chlorogenic acid and trans cinnamic acid | [89] |
Chlorogenic acid, catechin | Nicotiana attenuata | Infection by Trichobaris mucorea | Increase in chlorogenic acid and catechin | [90] |
Cinnamic acid, naringin, and rutin | Beta vulgaris | Infection by Canavalia ensiformis | Increase in cinnamic acid, naringin and rutin | [91] |
Pterostillbene and resveratrol, piceide | Vitis vinifera | Downy mildew by Botrytis cinerea | Increase in pterostillbene and resveratrol, piceide | [92] |
Aucuparin,2′-Hydroxyaucuparin 2′-Methoxyaucuparin | Aronia arbutifolia (L.) Elliott | Due to fungal inoculation or natural infection | Aucuparin,2′-Hydroxyaucuparin 2′-Methoxyaucuparin (biphenyl induction) | [87] |
Aucuparin 2′-Hydroxyaucuparin 2′-Methoxyaucuparin 4′-Methoxyaucuparin Isoaucuparin | Sorbus aucuparia L. | Due to fungal inoculation or natural infection | Aucuparin 2′-Hydroxyaucuparin 2′-Methoxyaucuparin 4′-Methoxyaucuparin Isoaucuparin (biphenyl induction) | [87] |
Xanthone | Hypericum perforatum (HP) suspension cultures | Elicitation by Agrobacterium tumefaciens cultivation | Xanthone biosynthesis in HP cells | [93] |
Xanthone | Hairy roots of Gentiana dinarica | Under biotic stress (chitosan and yeast extract) | Accumulation of xanthone | [94] |
4. Storage of Secondary Metabolites
4.1. Latex
4.2. Trichomes
Metabolite | Plant | Storage Structure | Storage Tissue | Property | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Artemisinin | Artemisia annua | Glandular trichome | Epidermal extensions | Anti-malarial | [110] |
Gossypol and related compounds | Gossypium hirsutism | Trichome | Epidermal extensions | Antifungal | [111] |
Pyrethrin | Tanacetum cinerariifolium | Trichome | Epidermal extensions | Insecticide | [112] |
Essential oil | Ocimum species | Glandular trichome | Epidermal extensions | Antimicrobial | [113] |
Alkaloids | Robinia viscosa var. hartwigii | Glandular trichome | Epidermal extensions | Antimicrobial | [114] |
Phenolic compounds | Millingtonia hortensis | Glandular trichome | Epidermal extensions | Herbivore and insect resistance | [115] |
Phylloplanins | Nicotiana tabacum | Glandular trichome | Epidermal extensions | Antifungal | [116] |
Acyl sugars | Solanum lycopersicum | Glandular trichome | Epidermal extensions | Insect and mite resistance | [117] |
Acyl sugars | Capsicum annuum | Glandular trichome | Epidermal extensions | Pathogen resistance | [118] |
Terpene compounds | Picea abies | Resin ducts | Epithelial parenchyma cells | Insect and pathogen resistance | [107] |
Phenolic and terpenoid compounds | Rivea ornata (Roxb.) | Extrafloral nectaries | Epithelial parenchyma cells | Attracts predators of pests | [108] |
β-D-glucopyranosyl ester | Taraxacum officinale | Latex | Laticifers | Anti-herbivore | [97] |
Polyisoprenes | Euphorbia spp. | Latex | Laticifers | Antifungal | [99] |
Alkaloids | Apocynaceae members | Latex | Laticifers | Anti-herbivore | [100] |
5. Enzymatic Regulation of Secondary Metabolites under Biotic Stress
5.1. Peroxidase
5.2. Lipoxygenase
5.3. Polyphenol Oxidase
5.4. Glycosyltransferases
6. Role of Secondary Metabolites in Biotic Stress Tolerance
6.1. Secondary Metabolites in Indirect Defense Mechanism
6.1.1. Secondary Metabolites in Allelopathy
6.1.2. Secondary Metabolites to Draw Predator Enemies
6.1.3. Secondary Metabolites as Cellular Barriers
6.1.4. Secondary Metabolites as Regulators of Plant Defense
6.1.5. Secondary Metabolites to Deter Herbivores and Pathogens
Feeding Deterrents
Oviposition Deterrents
6.1.6. As Apostematic Signals
6.2. Secondary Metabolites in Direct Defense
6.2.1. Phytotoxins
6.2.2. Phytoalexins and Phytoanticipins
7. Signaling Mechanism under Biotic Stress
8. Metabolomics Approaches Elucidating the Importance of Secondary Metabolites in Biotic Stress Tolerance
9. Metabolic Engineering in Biotic Stress Resistance Breeding
10. Exploitation of Secondary Metabolites for Sustainable Pest Management
10.1. Companion Farming
10.2. Botanical Insecticides
11. Conclusions and Prospects
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Secondary Metabolite | Category | Plant | Function | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pyrethrins | Monoterpenes | Chrysanthemum indicum | Neurotoxic to parasitic wasps, insects, moths, etc. | [20] |
Hemigossypol | Sesquiterpenes | Gossypium hirsutum | Antifungal | [26] |
Gossypol | Diterpene | Gossypium hirsutum | Antifungal and antibacterial | [20] |
Cucurbitacin-C | Triperpene | Cucurbita spps. | Toxic to spider mites | [27] |
Lectin | Plants | Insects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Allium sativum leaf lectin | Cicer arietinum, Nicotiana spp. | Aphis craccivora, Aphids | [45] |
Snowdrop lectin | Triticum aestivum, Oryza sativa, Arabidopsis spp. | Nilaparvata lugens, Aphids, Pieris rapae, Spodoptera littoralis | [46] |
Nictaba-related lectins NICTABA, PP2 | Nicotiana spp. | Manduca sexta, Spodoptera littoralis, Acyrthosiphon pisum | [47] |
Arum maculatum tuber lectin | Arum maculatum | Aphis craccivora, Lipaphis erysimi | [44] |
Bauhinia monandra leaf lectin, Jacalin-like lectins | Nicotiana spp., Triticum aestivum | Anagasta kuehniella, Mayetiola destructor, Callosobruchus maculates, Zabrotes subfasciatus | [48] |
Alkaloid Class | General Information | Example | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Tropane alkaloids | Contains 8-azabicyclo. Present in Solanaceae, Erthroxylaceae, and Convolvulaceae families. They are toxic in nature and are pharmaceutically potent. | Hyoscine, hyoxcyamine, and atropine. | [50] |
Benzyl-isoquinoline alkaloid | Pharmacologically active and shows potential against pathogenic infection. Present in Ranunculaceae, Papaveraceae, Menispermaceae, Fumariaceae, and Magnoliaceae families. | Tubocurarine, morphine, berberine, sanguinarine, colchicines, etc. | [21] |
Purine alkaloids | Theobromine is obtained by Camellia ptlophylla and coffee from Ilex paraguariensis, coffea arabica. | Theobromine, caffeine | [51] |
Simple alkaloids | A simple alkaloid found in Nicotiana species which is native to America. Tobacco is eaten, smoked, and chewed. It is also used to kill parasites. | Quinolinic acid, nicotine | [52] |
Quinolizidine alkaloids | Toxic in nature. Seeds are a good source of protein. Present in the Leguminosae family. | [53] | |
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids | Extremely toxic in nature. Fabaceae, Orchidaceae, Asteraceae, and Boraginaceae. | Putrescine, spermidine | [54] |
Phytochemical | Plant Source | Target Pest | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Leptin | Solanum chacoense | Leptinotarsa decemlineata | [55] |
α-Chaconine | Solanum tuberosum | Tecia solanivora | [56] |
2/3-Methylbutyronitrile | Populus trichocarpa | Lymantria dispar | [57] |
Dhurrin | Sorghum bicolor | Phyllotreta nemorum | [58] |
α-Solanine | Solanum tuberosum | Tecia solanivora | [56] |
Nicotine | Nicotiana attenuata | Spodoptera exigua; Manduca sexta | [59] |
Major Crop | Companion Plants | Enemy | Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Triticum aestivum L. | Vigna radiata L. | Sitobion avenae | The odor blends of host and non-host plants affect the host selection of S. avenae | [230] |
Triticum aestivum L. | Brassica napa (Allium sativum) | Sitobion avenae | Attracting natural enemies (lady beetle) | [231] |
Zea mays | Desmodium spp. | Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth. | Producing allelochemicals to suppress the Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth. germination | [232] |
Zea mays | Vicia faba | Spodoptera frugiperda | Feeding and repellents | [233] |
Brassica oleracea | Brassica nigra, Tagetus spp. | Common brassica pests | Volatiles attracted natural enemies of pests | [227] |
Vegetable crops | Tagetes minuta, Artemisia annua, Bidens pilosa, and Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium | Meloidogyne incognita | Root volatiles are repellants to nematodes | [234] |
Rubus species | Mentha × piperita | Drosophila suzukii | Volatiles act as oviposition deterrent | [235] |
Allium cepa L. | Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. | Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman | Pests are drawn by companion plant volatiles | [236] |
Botanical Insecticide | Secondary Metabolite | Target Organism | References |
---|---|---|---|
Garlic aqueous extracts | Sulfur-containing compounds/allicin | Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hemiptera insect species | [241,242] |
Neem oil/emulsions | Azadirachtin and limnoids | Blatt dean, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Thysanoptera pests | [243] |
Mentha piperata | Essential oil | Callosobruchus maculatus, flies, lice, moth, and Tribolium castrum | [244] |
Ruta chalepensis | Furocoumarin and quinolone alkaloids | Spodoptera littoralis | [245] |
Zingiber zerumbet | Essential oil | Lasioderma serricorne | [239] |
Cephalotaxus sinensis | Essential oil | Megoura japonica, Plutella xylostella, and Sitophilus zeamais | [246] |
Adenium obesum | Cardiac glycoside neriifolin | Monacha obstructa | [247] |
Periploca sepium Bunge | Pregnane glycosides | Armyworm (M. separata) | [248] |
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Al-Khayri, J.M.; Rashmi, R.; Toppo, V.; Chole, P.B.; Banadka, A.; Sudheer, W.N.; Nagella, P.; Shehata, W.F.; Al-Mssallem, M.Q.; Alessa, F.M.; et al. Plant Secondary Metabolites: The Weapons for Biotic Stress Management. Metabolites 2023, 13, 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13060716
Al-Khayri JM, Rashmi R, Toppo V, Chole PB, Banadka A, Sudheer WN, Nagella P, Shehata WF, Al-Mssallem MQ, Alessa FM, et al. Plant Secondary Metabolites: The Weapons for Biotic Stress Management. Metabolites. 2023; 13(6):716. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13060716
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Khayri, Jameel M., Ramakrishnan Rashmi, Varsha Toppo, Pranjali Bajrang Chole, Akshatha Banadka, Wudali Narasimha Sudheer, Praveen Nagella, Wael Fathi Shehata, Muneera Qassim Al-Mssallem, Fatima Mohammed Alessa, and et al. 2023. "Plant Secondary Metabolites: The Weapons for Biotic Stress Management" Metabolites 13, no. 6: 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13060716