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Molecular Mechanisms and Experimental Strategies for Understanding Plant Drought Response
Silicon Modulates the Chloroplast Proteome to Enhance Drought Tolerance in Soybean
Salinity Stress in Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.): Biological Intervention Strategies and Breeding Approaches for Salt-Tolerant Cultivars
Regulation of Plasmodesmata Function Through Lipid-Mediated PDLP7 or PDLP5 Strategies in Arabidopsis Leaf Cells
Harnessing Plant–Microorganism Interactions to Mitigate Biotic and Abiotic Stresses for Sustainable Crops

Journal Description

Plants

Plants is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal on plant science published semimonthly online by MDPI. The Spanish Phytopathological Society (SEF), the Spanish Society of Plant Biology (SEBP), the Spanish Society of Horticultural Sciences (SECH) and the Italian Society of Phytotherapy (S.I.Fit.) are affiliated with Plants and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Plant Sciences) / CiteScore - Q1 (Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 4.1 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.5 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2223-7747

Latest Articles

16 pages, 1138 KB

Open AccessArticle

Kinetic Parameters of Phosphorus Uptake as a Function of Cationic Metal Supply in Cotton

by Elcio Ferreira Santos, Ana Beatriz Pires Silva, Moacir de Souza Silva, Silvana de Paula Quintão Scalon and José Lavres

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081215 - 15 Apr 2026

Phosphorus (P) availability is currently a limiting factor for agricultural production, especially in tropical soils, and its interaction with cationic micronutrients can significantly affect physiological efficiency and nutrient uptake by plants. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the uptake kinetic parameters described by [...] Read more.

Phosphorus (P) availability is currently a limiting factor for agricultural production, especially in tropical soils, and its interaction with cationic micronutrients can significantly affect physiological efficiency and nutrient uptake by plants. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the uptake kinetic parameters described by the Michaelis–Menten model (Vmax, Km, and Cmin) for P as a function of the supply of Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn, as well as the kinetic parameters of Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn as a function of P supply in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at the experimental unit of CENA, in Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil, using individual pots. Phosphorus concentration and accumulation were reduced only under Fe and Zn deficiency, with reductions of up to 60% in the shoots and 85% in the roots. Zn deficiency caused a drastic reduction in P uptake capacity, with Vmax decreasing from 590 to 50.85 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹ (approximately a 12-fold reduction), accompanied by an increase in Cmin (from 269 to 1508 µmol L⁻¹). In terms of micronutrient kinetics, P omission reduced plant growth and affected only Fe and Zn uptake. For Fe, Km increased from 12.82 to 27.31 µmol L⁻¹ and Cmin from 1.03 to 20.51 µmol L⁻¹. For Zn, and Vmax decreased from 0.16 to 0.02 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹ (approximately 8-fold), while Cmin increased from 0.08 to 1.56 µmol L⁻¹. These results demonstrate a strong interaction between P, Fe, and Zn, highlighting their regulatory roles in nutrient uptake and providing mechanistic insights into plant nutritional efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Nutrient Use Efficiency Improvement in Plants—2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 867 KB

Open AccessArticle

Management of Chilli Anthracnose Using Garcinia atroviridis Nanoemulsions Integrated with Trichoderma harzianum

by Yasmeen Siddiqui

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1214; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081214 - 15 Apr 2026

Chilli is a major horticultural crop in tropical and subtropical regions that contributes substantially to the global culinary and economic sectors. However, anthracnose remains one of the most destructive diseases, causing severe losses in both field and stored fruits. Current management strategies offer [...] Read more.

Chilli is a major horticultural crop in tropical and subtropical regions that contributes substantially to the global culinary and economic sectors. However, anthracnose remains one of the most destructive diseases, causing severe losses in both field and stored fruits. Current management strategies offer limited long-term effectiveness, highlighting the need for sustainable alternatives. This study developed nanoemulsions (NEs) from Garcinia atroviridis fruit extract and evaluated their biocontrol potential against Colletotrichum capsici alone and in combination with Trichoderma harzianum. Two formulations, NE4 and NE7, exhibited good thermostability without phase separation at 25 and 54 °C, with droplet sizes of 135.1 and 124.1 nm, respectively, and were non-phytotoxic to chilli seedlings. In vitro, the nanoemulsions significantly suppressed C. capsici mycelial growth (62%) compared to the crude extract. Under rain shelter conditions, NE integrated with T. harzianum (T7 and T8) was highly effective in delaying disease onset and reducing disease severity, achieving 90.07% and 88.37% relative disease reduction, respectively. These treatments also produced the highest marketable yields, comparable to the synthetic fungicide Dithane M-45^® (2 g L⁻¹). In contrast, the untreated control group exhibited an 83% yield loss. The results indicate that nanoemulsions of G. atroviridis fruit extract, particularly when combined with T. harzianum, offer a promising and sustainable biological control option for managing pre-harvest chilli anthracnose. Their incorporation into integrated pest management programmes may reduce dependence on chemical fungicides and support safer chilli production systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Control of Plant Pathogens and Pests)

16 pages, 4579 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Strategies of Desert Shrub Stem–Leaf Anatomical Traits in the High-Altitude Qaidam Basin

by Yuanyuan Wang, Siyu Liu and Chengjun Ji

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1213; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081213 - 15 Apr 2026

High-altitude arid regions are characterized by concurrent water scarcity, low temperatures, and intense solar radiation. However, the adaptive mechanisms of desert shrubs to these combined stressors remain poorly understood. To address this gap, we integrated large-scale field surveys with laboratory measurements of eight [...] Read more.

High-altitude arid regions are characterized by concurrent water scarcity, low temperatures, and intense solar radiation. However, the adaptive mechanisms of desert shrubs to these combined stressors remain poorly understood. To address this gap, we integrated large-scale field surveys with laboratory measurements of eight stem and leaf anatomical traits across six common desert shrub species in the Qaidam Basin. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed two primary axes of trait variation. The first principal component (PC1) characterized a trade-off between leaf protective traits (e.g., cuticle and epidermal thickness) and stem hydraulic-storage traits (e.g., central cylinder, xylem, and pith diameters). The second principal component (PC2) was primarily loaded by stem cortex thickness, representing a physiological buffering mechanism. Based on PC1, species were categorized into two distinct strategic groups. Group A prioritized investment in stem conductive and storage tissues, enhancing hydraulic safety under hotter, high-evaporative demand conditions. Conversely, Group B exhibited reinforced leaf protective structures, consistent with tolerance to high radiation and low-temperature stress at higher elevations. The environmental gradients were the primary drivers of this divergence: Group A was associated with aridity, whereas Group B was correlated with elevation. Our findings demonstrate that desert shrubs in the Qaidam Basin have employed diverse adaptive strategies via the modulation of organ-specific anatomical traits to mitigate environmental stressors. These findings offer valuable insights into plant adaptive mechanisms, with implications for predicting vegetation responses and informing ecological restoration in high-altitude arid ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Development and Morphogenesis)

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25 pages, 9234 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Ca²⁺/Calmodulin-Interacting IQD Hub in Tartary Buckwheat: Genome-Wide FtIQD Analysis and Characterization of FtIQD19

by Guojun Chen, Chenyi Wu, Zhixing Zhao, Yuzhen Liang, Jingyi Wang, Zhenwang Li, Zhengyan Li and Xiule Yue

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1212; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081212 - 15 Apr 2026

IQ67-domain (IQD) proteins are plant-specific calmodulin (CaM)/calmodulin-like (CML) targets implicated in the spatial organization of Ca²⁺ signaling, yet their roles in tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum) remain largely unexplored. Here, we identified 24 FtIQD genes and classified them into six phylogenetic [...] Read more.

IQ67-domain (IQD) proteins are plant-specific calmodulin (CaM)/calmodulin-like (CML) targets implicated in the spatial organization of Ca²⁺ signaling, yet their roles in tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum) remain largely unexplored. Here, we identified 24 FtIQD genes and classified them into six phylogenetic subfamilies. FtIQDs show uneven chromosomal distribution and mainly arise from segmental duplication under purifying selection. Promoter analysis revealed the enrichment of MYB-, light-, and ABA-related cis-elements. To link FtIQDs with rutin variation, we performed an FtIQD-focused association analysis using whole-genome resequencing data from altitude-stratified panels of up to 220 accessions. Under additive, dominant, and recessive models, multiple significant SNPs (p < 1 × 10⁻⁵) were detected near a subset of FtIQD loci, showing clear model- and environment-dependent patterns. Recurrent loci included FtIQD22, FtIQD02, FtIQD16, and FtIQD19. RNA-seq under PEG-induced drought stress, tissue expression patterns, pathway co-expression, and qRT–PCR further prioritized FtIQD19. FtIQD19–GFP showed predominant nuclear localization with additional filamentous/peripheral signals, and yeast two-hybrid assays identified FtCaM7.2 as the strongest interactor among representative CaMs. Structural modeling of the FtIQD19–FtCaM7.2 complex suggested testable residue-level interaction features. Collectively, this work provides a foundational FtIQD resource and highlights candidate Ca²⁺/CaM–IQD modules potentially associated with altitude-dependent rutin variation in tartary buckwheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic Stress of Crops: Molecular Genetics and Genomics—3rd Edition)

16 pages, 2134 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microplastic Transport in Buckwheat Root-Inspired Microfluidic Structures: Microfluidic and Numerical Analysis

by Skaistė Dreskinienė, Monika Vilkienė, Gintarė Šidlauskaitė, Julija Pupeikė, Vykintė Trakšelytė, Paulius Vilkinis, Aistė Tilvikaitė and Justas Šereika

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1211; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081211 - 15 Apr 2026

Microplastics released from synthetic textiles are increasingly recognized as an important source of environmental contamination and a potential pathway of their entry into soil–plant systems. This study quantified microfibre release from warp-knitted polyester fabric during domestic washing and investigated the migration behaviour of [...] Read more.

Microplastics released from synthetic textiles are increasingly recognized as an important source of environmental contamination and a potential pathway of their entry into soil–plant systems. This study quantified microfibre release from warp-knitted polyester fabric during domestic washing and investigated the migration behaviour of microplastics within root epidermis-like structures using a combined experimental and numerical approach. Microfibre emission was determined gravimetrically according to ISO 4484-1:2023. The average release per washing cycle was 0.6 ± 0.5 g of microfibres per kilogram of polyester textile. Raman spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry analysis confirmed that the released particles consisted of polyethylene terephthalate. Scanning electron microscopy of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) roots revealed a well-defined epidermal and cortical tissue organization, which served as a basis for designing simplified epidermis-inspired microchannel geometries. Numerical simulations and microfluidic experiments showed that microplastics predominantly follow streamline-oriented pathways under laminar flow conditions. However, particle accumulation can induce localized clogging within pore-like structures, modifying flow pathways and redirecting particle transport. These results indicate that root epidermal tissues may function as a partial filtration barrier that restricts the transport of larger microplastics while allowing smaller particles to migrate through outer root layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilient Plants and Algae: New Environmental Challenges and Innovative Technological Approaches)

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15 pages, 1859 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nutrition of Shade-Grown Coffee Plantations with Inorganic Fertilizers in Oaxaca, Mexico

by Miguel A. Cano-García, Verónica Mariles-Flores, Patricio Sánchez-Guzmán, Luis E. García-Mayoral, Rafael Ariza-Flores, Pedro Cadena-Iñiguez and Luis A. Gálvez-Marroquín

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1210; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081210 - 15 Apr 2026

Coffee (Coffea arabica) is a very important world commodity because of the countries involved in its production, along with the total cultivated area, production volume, consumption and economic impact. In Mexico, the coffee producing areas are located mainly in the hilly [...] Read more.

Coffee (Coffea arabica) is a very important world commodity because of the countries involved in its production, along with the total cultivated area, production volume, consumption and economic impact. In Mexico, the coffee producing areas are located mainly in the hilly terrain of southern Mexico under agroforestry systems predominantly owned by smallholders. Low productivity is faced especially in the state of Oaxaca as a result of inadequate management practices such as aged plantations and deficient practices of pruning and plant nutrition. In order to evaluate the effect of inorganic fertilization on coffee yield, an experiment was carried out at three plantations located in the coastal coffee producing region of the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. Six treatments considering varied amounts of inorganic nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) and lime application were applied in coffee plantations with the varieties Typica and Oro azteca. A randomized complete block design with four replications was used. The experiments were conducted in areas with three- or four-year-old plants, with the objective of having at least one harvest for yield evaluation. The variables’ plant height and coffee yield per plant were registered. The soil was classified based on soil profile description and lab analyses. The results showed that the soil in the study area is a Lithic Ustorthent with low pedogenic evolution and the application of inorganic nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium along with dolomitic lime, increased coffee yield on both varieties of arabica coffee: Typica and Oro azteca. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrient Requirements and Fertilizer Management Strategies in Plant Cultivation, Second Edition)

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14 pages, 2534 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Assessment of Genetic Diversity and Differentiation in Triadica cochinchinensis Populations Using SSR Markers

by Pengyan Zhou, Qi Zhou, Chenghao Zhang, Meng Xu and Yingang Li

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1209; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081209 - 15 Apr 2026

Genetic diversity is fundamental for the conservation and sustainable utilization of plant species. Triadica cochinchinensis, a tree species native to southern China, is an important ornamental and nectar-producing plant with considerable economic value. However, the levels of genetic diversity and the patterns [...] Read more.

Genetic diversity is fundamental for the conservation and sustainable utilization of plant species. Triadica cochinchinensis, a tree species native to southern China, is an important ornamental and nectar-producing plant with considerable economic value. However, the levels of genetic diversity and the patterns of population differentiation across its natural populations remain unexplored. Here, we developed 24 highly polymorphic SSR markers and used them to assess the genetic diversity and differentiation among 280 individuals collected from 10 natural populations of T. cochinchinensis. The results showed that the average expected heterozygosity (He) revealed by the SSR markers was 0.774, and the average Shannon diversity index (I) was 1.660, indicating a high level of genetic diversity at the species level of T. cochinchinensis. Analysis using SSR markers revealed a low average observed heterozygosity (Ho = 0.323) and a relatively high average inbreeding coefficient within populations (F = 0.466). These findings suggest that inbreeding is likely occurring, which may contribute to a loss of heterozygosity within the studied populations. Notably, not all populations had high genetic diversity. For example, the He of SC2 population (0.490), QY population (0.568), and SC1 population (0.585) were all below the mean He (0.607), suggesting that attention should be given to protecting populations with low genetic diversity. The results further showed that the average genetic differentiation coefficient (F_ST) between populations was 0.094, and the average gene flow (Nm) was 2.278, indicating that the natural populations of T. cochinchinensis had low genetic differentiation and relatively high gene flow. AMOVA indicated that 74% of the total variation was distributed within populations. Notably, populations SC1 and SC2 exhibited higher genetic differentiation from all others (F_ST > 0.1), which is likely attributed to mountain barriers restricting gene flow. Therefore, it is recommended to enhance in situ conservation efforts while also facilitating assisted gene flow, such as through artificial introduction. For the first time, this study reveals the genetic information of natural populations of T. cochinchinensis at the molecular level, thereby offering a valuable reference for the conservation and utilization of its germplasm resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetic Resources)

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14 pages, 2373 KB

Open AccessArticle

Higher Light Intensity Combined with Optimized Photoperiod Enhances Growth and Tassel Development in Maize Inbred Line

by Xiang Ji, Luming Zhong, Jun Liu, Qing Zhou and Dongxian He

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081208 - 15 Apr 2026

Maize has a long generation cycle and sensitivity to photoperiod, which limit breeding efficiency. An LED plant factory with suitable light conditions provides a promising approach to overcoming challenges in speed breeding. This study optimized the LED light environment to enhance growth and [...] Read more.

Maize has a long generation cycle and sensitivity to photoperiod, which limit breeding efficiency. An LED plant factory with suitable light conditions provides a promising approach to overcoming challenges in speed breeding. This study optimized the LED light environment to enhance growth and tassel development in the maize inbred line from the V3 to V9 stages. Six lighting treatments were tested, combining three light intensities (800, 1200, and 1600 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) and two photoperiods (10 h d⁻¹ and 12 h d⁻¹). Treatment with a light intensity of 1600 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and a photoperiod of 10 h d⁻¹ resulted in the highest shoot fresh weight (396.9 g per plant), shoot dry weight (42.4 g per plant), leaf area (51.3 dm² per plant), and stomatal length (34.6 μm), as well as improved photosystem performance. Furthermore, this treatment promoted tassel development, with the tassel length at the V9 stage being 45.8% longer than that under the treatment with a light intensity of 800 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and a photoperiod of 10 h d⁻¹. These findings establish an optimized lighting strategy that significantly enhances the growth and tassel development of maize inbred lines from the V3 to V9 stages, providing a suitable light environment for maize speed breeding in plant factory systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light and Plant Responses)

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12 pages, 1856 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Diversity and Clonal Structure of Small-Leaved Lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) in Lithuanian Protected Forest Areas

by Rita Verbylaitė, Jūratė Lynikienė, Artūras Gedminas, Valeriia Mishcherikova, Virgilijus Baliuckas and Vytautas Suchockas

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1207; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081207 - 15 Apr 2026

Tilia cordata Mill. is a long-lived, ecologically important broadleaved tree species that maintains high genetic diversity despite habitat fragmentation and historical range shifts. In this study, we assessed genetic diversity, clonal structure, and population differentiation in six genetic conservation units (GCUs) in Lithuania [...] Read more.

Tilia cordata Mill. is a long-lived, ecologically important broadleaved tree species that maintains high genetic diversity despite habitat fragmentation and historical range shifts. In this study, we assessed genetic diversity, clonal structure, and population differentiation in six genetic conservation units (GCUs) in Lithuania using nuclear microsatellite markers. A total of 1109 individuals were successfully genotyped, revealing 979 unique multi-locus genotypes, with 17% of individuals assigned to clonal lineages. Clonal groups were generally small and spatially restricted, indicating localized vegetative regeneration. Genetic diversity was high across all populations, with similar levels of observed and expected heterozygosity, consistent with predominantly outcrossing reproduction. Juvenile cohorts exhibited slightly higher allelic richness and latent genetic potential compared to mature trees, suggesting effective regeneration and maintenance of genetic variation. Genetic differentiation among populations was low but significant (F_ST = 0.013; G″_ST = 0.051), with evidence of clustering corresponding to provenance regions. High gene flow (Nm ≈ 10) likely contributes to weak population structure, although regional differentiation persists. The results demonstrate that Lithuanian T. cordata populations retain a robust genetic framework, combining high within-population diversity with moderate structuring. These findings highlight the importance of conserving multiple GCUs and implementing genetic monitoring to ensure long-term population viability under changing environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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25 pages, 2133 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Lightweight Plant Disease Detection Model for Long-Tailed Agricultural Scenarios

by Luyun Chen, Yuzhu Wu, Yangyuzhi Meng, Qiang Tang, Zhen Tian, Shengyu Li and Siyuan Liu

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1206; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081206 - 15 Apr 2026

In natural agricultural environments, plant disease monitoring faces significant challenges, including a highly uneven (long-tail) distribution of disease species, tiny scales of early-stage lesions, and complex, variable backgrounds. These factors hinder the ability of existing lightweight models to balance detection accuracy and computational [...] Read more.

In natural agricultural environments, plant disease monitoring faces significant challenges, including a highly uneven (long-tail) distribution of disease species, tiny scales of early-stage lesions, and complex, variable backgrounds. These factors hinder the ability of existing lightweight models to balance detection accuracy and computational efficiency. To address these issues, this paper proposes a detection scheme driven by the synergy of data distribution reshaping and model architecture optimization. At the data level, we propose the CALM-Aug augmentation strategy. Based on the statistical distribution characteristics of disease categories, this strategy utilizes object-level copy-paste logic to specifically compensate for the feature shortcomings of rare disease samples. It introduces a teacher-guided screening mechanism and employs accept–reject sampling to ensure the pathological consistency of the augmented samples, thereby alleviating the model’s inductive bias toward head categories. At the model architecture level, using YOLOv11 as the baseline, the YOLO11-ARL model adapted to agricultural scenarios is constructed. It enhances sensitivity to early point-like disease spots through Efficient Multi-Scale Convolutional Pyramids and lightweight decoupled detection heads. Furthermore, a Layer-wise Adaptive Feature-guided Distillation Pruning (LAFDP) algorithm is utilized to extract a lightweight version, YOLO11-ARL-PD, achieving a significant reduction in parameters and computational cost. Experimental results on the PlantDoc dataset show that the final model achieves a precision of 89.0% and an mAP@0.5 of 85.3%. Compared to the baseline model YOLOv11n, YOLO11-ARL-PD improves precision and average precision by 7.7 and 2.6 percentage points, respectively, while reducing parameters by 51.93% and weights by 46.15%. Cross-dataset tests prove the good generalization performance of the proposed method. This study indicates that, under lightweight constraints, jointly optimizing the training distribution and model architecture is an effective way to improve plant disease monitoring and to support the edge deployment of smart crop-protection systems. All resources for CALM-Aug are available at wyz-2004/CALM-Aug on GitHub. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Driven Machine Vision Technologies in Plant Science)

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13 pages, 1626 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Characterization of GA2ox3 in Rice Osmotic Stress Response and Identification of a Superior Allele for Breeding Applications

by Liping Dai, Xujie Chen, Danni Yao, Huihui Sun, Qianwen Li, Ting Yang, Jinwei Qi, Chengyi Zhang, Xinyao Li, Kehui Zhang, Hui Wang, Chaohuang Tu, Yujue Wang, Chengfang Zhan, Xueli Lu, Guanghui Xiao and Dali Zeng

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1205; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081205 - 15 Apr 2026

Drought is a major abiotic stress limiting rice production worldwide. GA2ox3, a GA 2-oxidase involved in gibberellin deactivation, has been previously linked to growth regulation. Here, we demonstrate that functional disruption of GA2ox3 enhances shoot growth but compromises drought tolerance in rice. [...] Read more.

Drought is a major abiotic stress limiting rice production worldwide. GA2ox3, a GA 2-oxidase involved in gibberellin deactivation, has been previously linked to growth regulation. Here, we demonstrate that functional disruption of GA2ox3 enhances shoot growth but compromises drought tolerance in rice. CRISPR/Cas9 knockout lines (ga2ox3) showed increased plant height and reduced antioxidant capacity under 20%PEG-induced osmotic stress, evidenced by higher H₂O₂ and MDA accumulation and decreased POD activity. Moreover, expression analysis revealed that GA2ox3 may be associated with the GA signaling cascade involving OsSLR1, OsBURP3, and OsSUS1. Haplotype analysis based on 627 rice accessions identified two major alleles, Hap1 and Hap2, with Hap1 showing higher GA2ox3 expression and stronger drought resilience. These findings suggest that GA2ox3 positively regulates osmotic stress tolerance, and its natural variation represents promising genetic resources for improving drought adaptation in rice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular and Genetic Mechanisms of Stress Tolerance and Development in Rice)

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25 pages, 1858 KB

Open AccessArticle

Foliar Application of Biostimulants Alleviates Salinity Stress in Spinach

by Ömer Taş, Mehmet Ali Cengiz, Hakan Arslan and Deniz Ekinci

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1204; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081204 - 15 Apr 2026

Environmental stress factors, especially salinity, are among the most important abiotic stresses that negatively affect plant production worldwide. High salt levels in irrigation water are a major abiotic stress factor that significantly reduces spinach physiological functioning and production, particularly in irrigated areas. Improving [...] Read more.

Environmental stress factors, especially salinity, are among the most important abiotic stresses that negatively affect plant production worldwide. High salt levels in irrigation water are a major abiotic stress factor that significantly reduces spinach physiological functioning and production, particularly in irrigated areas. Improving the salt tolerance of spinach is critical for sustainable production, and in this study, we tested the hypothesis that exogenous proline (5 µM), ascorbic acid (1 mM), and salicylic acid (1 mM) applications, applied separately, would reduce salinity stress. These applications were performed at regular 14-day intervals starting from the third true leaf stage. For this purpose, plants were exposed to irrigation water salinities of 0.38, 2.0, 4.0, 7.0, 10.0, and 15.0 dS m⁻¹, and growth, photosynthetic performance, antioxidant enzyme activities, lipid peroxidation, endogenous proline, and mineral contents were assessed. Increasing salinity to 15 dS m⁻¹ decreased leaf area by 53.23% and stomatal conductance by 83.07%, and all these physiological changes were statistically significant. Under salinity conditions, catalase, guaiacol peroxidase, glutathione reductase, glutathione S-transferase, and superoxide dismutase activities increased by 1.13–2.52-fold, while ascorbate peroxidase activity decreased by 59.69%. Malondialdehyde levels increased 6-fold with salinity, indicating enhanced oxidative damage. Consequently, yield decreased by 31% under 15 dS m⁻¹ salinity. Although all exogenous applications alleviated salinity stress, the most significant improvement was observed in proline application. Proline increased yield and chlorophyll content by 9% and 8.5%, respectively, and also increased antioxidant enzyme activities by 24.4–66.7%. Salicylic acid treatment increased the K⁺/Na⁺ ratio by 26.6%, and ascorbic acid treatment increased the Ca²⁺/Na⁺ ratio by 36.6%. Overall, low-dose proline application was found to improve photosynthetic pigment content and stomatal conductance, antioxidant defenses, and ion homeostasis in spinach against salinity stress, providing a stronger protective effect compared to ascorbic acid and salicylic acid. Furthermore, it can be concluded that proline application could be an effective way to manage salinity-induced limitations to physiological processes and yields, providing practical applications for sustainable production under saline irrigation conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biostimulants for Plant Mitigation of Abiotic Stresses in Plants)

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12 pages, 1372 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Changes in Plant Nitrogen Resorption During Restoration in Inner Mongolia, China

by Xiang Li, Takafumi Miyasaka and Hao Qu

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081203 - 15 Apr 2026

Tree and shrub planting is a widely used strategy to restore degraded semi-arid grasslands. Although nutrient resorption is a key adaptation to nutrient-limited environments, its dynamics at decadal scales remain poorly understood. In this study, we measured species-averaged nitrogen resorption efficiency (NRE) at [...] Read more.

Tree and shrub planting is a widely used strategy to restore degraded semi-arid grasslands. Although nutrient resorption is a key adaptation to nutrient-limited environments, its dynamics at decadal scales remain poorly understood. In this study, we measured species-averaged nitrogen resorption efficiency (NRE) at both community and functional group levels, together with soil nutrients, across 20- and 40-year shrub-planted sites and a 40-year tree-planted site in Inner Mongolia, China. At the community level, green and senesced leaf nitrogen (N) concentrations, NRE, and aboveground biomass did not differ significantly among sites. However, clear differences emerged at the functional group level: Poaceae exhibited higher NRE than forbs and lower senesced leaf N than both forbs and Fabaceae. As restoration progressed, Poaceae replaced forbs as the dominant group, coinciding with increased soil nutrient availability. Notably, NRE in Poaceae declined with increasing soil nutrients, suggesting a shift toward greater reliance on direct soil nutrient uptake. This shift, combined with the production of low-nitrogen litter by dominant Poaceae species, may ultimately slow soil nutrient accumulation. Our findings highlight the importance of functional group dynamics in regulating long-term nutrient resorption and cycling and suggest that managing Poaceae dominance could enhance long-term soil nutrient enrichment and biodiversity in restored semi-arid grasslands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Vegetation Restoration, Alleviate Land Degradation and Encourage Sustainable Management in the Desert Ecosystem)

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15 pages, 856 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study of Main Pathogenicity Factors and Metabolites of Wilsonomyces carpophilus

by Ziyan Xu, Hailong Lu, Chenxu Luo, Chuli Liu, Xinmei Zhou and Rong Ma

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1202; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081202 - 14 Apr 2026

Shot-hole disease caused by Wilsonomyces carpophilus poses a significant threat to stone fruit species, including wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.). This study investigated pathogenic factors (cell wall-degrading enzymes and toxins) and metabolites produced by a highly pathogenic strain (CFCC 71544) and a [...] Read more.

Shot-hole disease caused by Wilsonomyces carpophilus poses a significant threat to stone fruit species, including wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.). This study investigated pathogenic factors (cell wall-degrading enzymes and toxins) and metabolites produced by a highly pathogenic strain (CFCC 71544) and a weakly pathogenic strain (CFCC 71543) of W. carpophilus during infection of P. armeniaca (in planta conditions). Analysis using the 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid colorimetric method revealed that polygalacturonase (CFCC 71544: 1367.02 U/g; CFCC 71543: 1264.00 U/g) and polymethylgalacturonase (CFCC 71544: 1898.71 U·g⁻¹; CFCC 71543: 1762.21 U·g⁻¹) were the most active cell wall-degrading enzymes, with higher activities observed in the highly pathogenic strain (CFCC 71544). Crude toxins from CFCC 71543 induced leaf lesions averaging 41.91 mm² and retained activity after exposure to 121 °C and UV treatment. Non-protein fractions of the toxins caused significantly larger lesions than protein fractions (15.93 mm² vs. 5.56 mm², respectively). Building on these in planta findings, we further characterized toxin properties under controlled laboratory conditions (in vitro). Optimal toxin production conditions were identified in Richard culture medium at pH 4, under a 12 h light/dark cycle, shaken for 12 days at 25 °C. Untargeted metabolomics identified 3244 compounds and 977 differential metabolites among mycelia, crude toxins, and the residual aqueous phase after organic solvent extraction; these metabolites were predominantly amino acids and derivatives and organic acids. These findings indicate that the main pathogenic factors of W. carpophilus are highly active polygalacturonase and heat/UV-stable, water-soluble, non-protein toxins, providing a theoretical basis for shot-hole disease prevention and control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plant–Fungal Pathogen Interaction—2nd Edition)

55 pages, 4596 KB

Open AccessReview

Breeding Climate-Resilient Soybeans for 2050 and Beyond: Leveraging Novel Technologies to Mitigate Yield Stagnation and Climate Change Impacts

by Muhammad Amjad Nawaz, Gyuhwa Chung, Igor Eduardovich Pamirsky and Kirill Sergeevich Golokhvast

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1201; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081201 - 14 Apr 2026

Soybean is a vital crop supporting global food, feed, and biofuel production. Soybean yields have surged, with record yields reaching 14,678 kg/ha⁻¹, though average farm yields remain stagnant at 2770–2790 kg ha⁻¹. The persistent yield gaps leave 44% of [...] Read more.

Soybean is a vital crop supporting global food, feed, and biofuel production. Soybean yields have surged, with record yields reaching 14,678 kg/ha⁻¹, though average farm yields remain stagnant at 2770–2790 kg ha⁻¹. The persistent yield gaps leave 44% of potential production unrealized due to climate change, threatening food security. To meet future caloric demands, which are projected to rise by 46.8% by 2050, soybean breeding must prioritize climate-resilient, high-yielding varieties with minimal ecological footprints. In this comprehensive and in-depth review, we synthesized existing literature and Google Patents and reviewed the multifaceted impacts of climate-change driven eCO₂ and stresses (heat, drought, flooding, salinity, and pathogens), revealing non-linear interactions where eCO₂ may not compensate yield losses under combined stresses. We then highlight key strategies for soybean breeding under climate-change scenario. To this regard, we provide a detailed trait-by-trait breeding roadmap covering seed number, seed size, seed weight, protein-oil balance and their metabolic trade-offs, above and below ground plant architecture, nitrogen fixation and nodulation dynamics, root system architecture, water use efficiency, canopy architecture, flowering time regulation, early maturity etc., in light of specific genes and validated strategies. We explicitly discuss the novel strategies including deeper understanding of traits, abiotic stress physiology, changing pathogen dynamics, phenomics, (multi-)omics, machine learning, and modern biotechnological techniques for developing future soybean varieties. We provide a future roadmap prioritizing specific actions, including engineering climate-resilient ideotypes through gene stacking, optimizing nitrogen fixation and nutrition under stresses leveraging omics data, pan-genome, wild soybean, speeding breeding hubs, and participatory farmer-network validation, while redefining the future soybean breeder would be a hybrid orchestrator of data and dirt. This review establishes a foundational framework for translating climate-adaptive morphological, biochemical, physiological, omics, agronomic, phenomics, and biotechnological insights into actionable breeding strategies, thereby guiding policy-driven investment in soybean improvement programs targeting 2050 and beyond. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Soybean Research: From Genetics to Climate Resilience and Sustainable Production)

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18 pages, 21094 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Axillary Bud Germination Regulatory Network in Sugarcane Based on Transcriptome and Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis

by Yanye Li, Ting Yang, Zongtao Yang, Xujuan Li, Xin Lu, Jianming Wu, Jiayong Liu, Fenggang Zan, Yong Zhao, Jun Deng and Xinlong Liu

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1200; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081200 - 14 Apr 2026

Axillary bud germination in sugarcane is a critical agronomic trait that directly determines seedling emergence and tillering capacity; however, its molecular regulatory mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we systematically investigated the hormonal dynamics and transcriptomic profiles of the sugarcane cultivar XTT22 [...] Read more.

Axillary bud germination in sugarcane is a critical agronomic trait that directly determines seedling emergence and tillering capacity; however, its molecular regulatory mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we systematically investigated the hormonal dynamics and transcriptomic profiles of the sugarcane cultivar XTT22 across five developmental stages (from dormancy to the first new leaf stage). Our results revealed that abscisic acid (ABA) content fluctuated during germination, whereas indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and gibberellin (GA) levels decreased significantly, suggesting their negative regulatory roles. In contrast, cytokinin (CTK) and ethylene (ETH) contents increased at the initiation stage, indicating positive promoting functions. Transcriptome analysis identified 31,513 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), which were significantly enriched in pathways related to hormone signal transduction, starch/sucrose metabolism, and photosynthesis. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) constructed 12 co-expression modules, among which the antiquewhite4 module (negatively correlated with IAA, GA, and ABA contents) and the darkorange2 module (positively correlated with cytokinin content) were identified as key regulatory modules. From these modules, seven core hub transcription factors (e.g., ScTCP5, ScSCR, and ScSHR1) were screened, and their expression patterns were validated by RT-qPCR. Furthermore, the expression trends of six hormone-related DEGs were highly consistent with the RNA-seq data. Collectively, this study elucidates the hormonal dynamics and gene regulatory networks underlying axillary bud germination in sugarcane, providing candidate gene resources for breeding high-yield varieties with enhanced emergence and tillering capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sugarcane Breeding and Biotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture)

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20 pages, 3590 KB

Open AccessEssay

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of the Eco-Physiological Characteristics of Picea schrenkiana in the Tianshan Mountains and Its Adaptive Mechanisms

by Ruixi Li, Lu Gong, Xue Wu, Kejie Yin, Yihu Niu, Xiaonan Sun, Peryzat Abay and Fan Tian

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1199; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081199 - 14 Apr 2026

Trees in arid mountainous forests adapt to seasonal water variability through dynamic eco-physiological adjustments. This study investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics and environmental drivers of such adaptations in Picea schrenkiana Fisch. et Mey, a keystone conifer in China’s Tianshan Mountains. We monitored key indicators—including [...] Read more.

Trees in arid mountainous forests adapt to seasonal water variability through dynamic eco-physiological adjustments. This study investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics and environmental drivers of such adaptations in Picea schrenkiana Fisch. et Mey, a keystone conifer in China’s Tianshan Mountains. We monitored key indicators—including osmoregulatory substances, antioxidant enzyme activities, and stoichiometric traits—across three regions (eastern, central, western) and three seasons (spring, summer, autumn) during the 2023 growing season. The results revealed significant seasonal shifts in all the measured traits (p < 0.05). Spring was characterized by high carbon allocation toward soluble sugars and starch, supporting growth; summer triggered elevated antioxidant enzyme activities to mitigate oxidative stress; and autumn favored nitrogen accumulation and proline synthesis, indicating preparatory storage for winter. Soil factors were primarily positively associated with antioxidant enzyme activity (path coefficient = 0.51; p < 0.001), whereas microenvironmental factors were more complex and often negatively correlated. The partial least squares path model confirmed that osmoregulatory substances centrally link stoichiometric adjustments with antioxidant defense, revealing an integrated physiological strategy. These findings elucidate the mechanism underlying the resilience of P. schrenkiana in arid highlands and provide a framework for its conservation under environmental change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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25 pages, 6932 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Distribution of Continuous Precipitation and Its Effect on Vegetation Cover in China over the Past 30 Years

by Hui Zhang, Shuangyuan Sun, Zihan Liao, Tianying Wang, Jinghan Xu, Peishan Ju, Jinyu Gu and Jiping Liu

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081198 - 14 Apr 2026

Precipitation is a fundamental element in terrestrial water circulation and ecosystem hydrological balance. The occurrence of concentrated precipitation is closely linked to vegetation growth and soil fertility rather than accumulated or averaged precipitation. Despite its importance, the characteristics of continuous precipitation and its [...] Read more.

Precipitation is a fundamental element in terrestrial water circulation and ecosystem hydrological balance. The occurrence of concentrated precipitation is closely linked to vegetation growth and soil fertility rather than accumulated or averaged precipitation. Despite its importance, the characteristics of continuous precipitation and its specific effects on vegetation cover remain uncertain. In this study, we formulated a new continuous precipitation index system, including

C P_{d}

(continuous precipitation days);

A C P_{t}

(annual continuous precipitation times);

C P_{a}

(continuous precipitation amount); and

F C P

(frequency in different ranges of

A C P_{a}

). We utilized daily precipitation data from 467 meteorological stations across China, which were divided into eight vegetation type regions. We observed that the spatial distribution of continuous precipitation differed to varying degrees from accumulated precipitation. The national average of

M A C P_{a}

for a single event was 16.7 mm, ranging from 3.8 mm in the temperate desert region to 37.1 mm in the tropical monsoon forest and rainforest region. Similarly, the national average of

M C P_{d}

(

M M C P_{d}

) for a single event was approximately 2.3 or 9 days. At the regional level, the tropical monsoon forest and rainforest region experienced the longest

M M C P_{d}

. Furthermore, the national average of

M A C P_{t}

occurrences for 1 year was 57.7 times, varying from 29.8 times in the temperate desert region to 77.9 times in the tropical monsoon forest and rainforest region. Vegetation responses to precipitation regimes exhibit significant regional heterogeneity across China. Our analysis reveals that

M A C P_{t}

and

M P_{a}

show markedly positive correlations with vegetation growth. In subtropical monsoon climate zones, particularly the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau and Qinling Mountains,

M A C P_{t}

demonstrates strong positive correlations (r = 0.6–1.0) with NDVI, where sustained rainfall provides stable moisture availability for vegetation. While a positive correlation between vegetation (NDVI) and mean annual consecutive precipitation is observed in some arid northern regions, in ecosystems such as the Loess Plateau (TG/TM), vegetation growth shows greater dependence on

M P_{a}

, highlighting the crucial role of total precipitation amount in water-limited ecosystems. Notably, extreme precipitation events display dual effects on vegetation dynamics. Prolonged heavy rainfall (

M M C P_{d}

/

M M C P_{a}

) exhibits significant negative impacts on NDVI (r = −1.0 to −0.6) in topographically complex regions, including the Hengduan Mountains and Yangtze River Basin (SE), likely due to induced soil erosion and waterlogging stress. Our findings underscore the importance of incorporating continuous precipitation indices to evaluate and forecast the influence of precipitation on ecosystem stability. This understanding is vital for developing informed conservation and management strategies to address current and future climate challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vegetation Dynamics and Ecological Restoration in Alpine Ecosystems)

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19 pages, 6663 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Diversity and Core Germplasm Development in Yunnan Tartary Buckwheat Based on Phenotypic and SNP Data

by Bingxin Zhai, Daowang Sun, Chunyan Huang, Zihan Zhao, Jiaxing Xie, Xin Liu, Wenjie Lu, Guang Wang and Lihua Wang

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081197 - 14 Apr 2026

Southwest China harbors the world’s richest germplasm resources of Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum). However, their effective utilization is severely constrained by poor management and narrow genetic diversity. Developing a core collection is a key strategy for overcoming these bottlenecks and facilitates [...] Read more.

Southwest China harbors the world’s richest germplasm resources of Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum). However, their effective utilization is severely constrained by poor management and narrow genetic diversity. Developing a core collection is a key strategy for overcoming these bottlenecks and facilitates the efficient conservation and utilization of germplasm resources. Therefore, we aimed to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of a Tartary buckwheat germplasm collection from Yunnan Province and adjacent regions to establish a core collection. Whole-genome resequencing and phenotyping of four key agronomic traits were performed on 313 Tartary buckwheat accessions. Population genetic structure, differentiation, and diversity parameters were analyzed using single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data. We obtained 3,433,676 high-quality SNP markers. The 313 accessions were classified into four ancestral populations and three phylogenetic groups, which revealed the complex patterns of genetic differentiation and gene flow. Phenotypic traits exhibited high genetic diversity, with wide variation ranges in key agronomic traits such as plant height, stem diameter, and branching characteristics, highlighting the richness of the germplasm resources. By integrating the phenotypic and SNP data, we constructed a core collection (Core-Merge) comprising 105 accessions (33.55% of the original collection). Core-Merge showed no significant differences in phenotypic traits compared to the original collection, exhibited a similar distribution in principal coordinate analysis, and demonstrated low kinship among individuals. The collection established in this study, Core-Merge, captures the maximum phenotypic and genotypic variability present in the original germplasm. The core germplasm collection provides a valuable foundation for the efficient conservation of, genetic research on, and molecular breeding of Tartary buckwheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetic Resources)

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16 pages, 1586 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanisms of Isoprene Decoupling in Poplar: Precursor Dynamics and VOC Fluxes Under Acute Thermal Exposure and Elevated CO₂

by Miguel Portillo-Estrada

Plants 2026, 15(8), 1196; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081196 - 14 Apr 2026

Rising temperatures and atmospheric CO₂ exert complex, interacting effects on plant carbon metabolism and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. This study investigated the physiological mechanisms underlying acute thermal tolerance in Populus nigra by integrating leaf gas exchange with high-resolution proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass [...] Read more.

Rising temperatures and atmospheric CO₂ exert complex, interacting effects on plant carbon metabolism and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. This study investigated the physiological mechanisms underlying acute thermal tolerance in Populus nigra by integrating leaf gas exchange with high-resolution proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-TOF-MS). We employed a factorial design (25–40 °C; 400 and 800 ppm CO₂) to examine how metabolic regulation and pulse-induced signalling interact across thermal gradients. Our results identify a critical metabolic tipping point around 40 °C, representing a transition toward a survival-orientated state. Isoprene emission decoupled from net photosynthesis at this threshold; while carbon assimilation collapsed, isoprene was maintained at near-maximal rates to prioritize thylakoid thermal protection. Under moderate temperatures (25–35 °C), emission capacity scaled linearly with the chloroplastic DMADP pool, but this relationship broke down at 40 °C. Notably, elevated CO₂ sustained the magnitude of stress-related “bursts” at the thermal limit, suggesting that increased carbon availability provides the metabolic stamina required to fuel emergency defence and fermentative pathways. These findings demonstrate that acute thermal exposure triggers a metabolic reconfiguration, shifting resources from growth-oriented processes toward survival-based stabilization mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Mechanisms Associated with Plant Tolerance upon Abiotic Stress—3rd Edition)

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