Innovative Delivery Systems Loaded with Plant Bioactive Ingredients: Formulation Approaches and Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Challenges in the Use of Plant Bioactive Ingredients
2.1. Solubility
2.2. Bioavailability
2.3. Stability
2.4. Release
3. Organic-Based Delivery Systems
3.1. Lipid-Based Delivery Systems
3.1.1. Vesicular Systems
Liposomes
- First generation of liposomes. These are the oldest developed, conventional liposomes that consist mainly of natural phospholipids and, in some cases, cholesterol. Despite the fact that they demonstrate a series of issues, such as increased uptake by the reticuloendothelial system (RES) and physicochemical and chemical degradation [43], they are very common delivery systems, also for plant ingredients [44,45].
- Second generation of liposomes. The second generation includes more recent developments such as stealth and stimuli-responsive liposomes. Stealth liposomes are coated by polymers for the modification of size and charge. Polyethylene glycol-covered (PEGylated) liposomes improve the stability and reduce the probability of RES uptake, increasing the blood half-life of the system. Stealth liposomes with interesting properties have been developed in order to encapsulate resveratrol [46] and curcumin [47]. Stimuli-responsive liposomes are able to release their content depending on external triggering mechanisms, such as pH or temperature change, thus being more targeted than conventional ones. Resveratrol and curcumin have also been incorporated into pH-sensitive systems [48,49].
- Third generation of liposomes. These systems bear a ligand (enzyme, antibody, vitamin, etc.) that leads to targeted transportation of the incorporated molecule(s) due to affinity mechanisms. Upon careful design, this can lead to accumulation of liposomes and targeted release at the desired site [50]. Galangin-loaded liposomes have been designed to target liver tissue [51], while a curcumin liposomal system has been developed to target cancer cells [52].
- Fourth generation of liposomes (or theranostic liposomes) combine several strategies to achieve site-specific delivery and, at the same time, imaging [53]. Their main advantage is the multifunctionality—being diagnostic and therapeutic agents at the same time. For the moment in what concerns plant extracts, the literature is very limited. A good case study is the one by Wang et al. [54], who developed a magnetic targeting liposomal nanocarrier, loaded with resveratrol, that with the aid of an external magnetic field can cross the blood–brain barrier and could prove helpful for the treatment of cerebral disease.
Transfersomes, Ethosomes, Phytosomes and Niosomes
3.1.2. Νon-Vesicular Systems
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
3.2. Protein-Based Delivery Systems
3.3. Carbohydrate-Based Delivery Systems
3.4. Polymeric Systems
3.4.1. Polymer-Based Nanoparticles
3.4.2. Micelles
3.4.3. Dendrimers
3.4.4. Polymeric Nanoparticles and Nanogels
3.4.5. Nanocapsules
3.4.6. Nanospheres
3.4.7. Nanofibers
3.4.8. Polymersomes
3.5. Nanoemulsions
4. Inorganic-Based Delivery Systems
5. Other Delivery Approaches
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type of Lipidic Carrier | Encapsulated Material | Target of Encapsulation | Size of the Obtained Delivery System | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liposome | Quercetin | Solubility | 107–139 nm | Oxidative stress and enhanced internalization by cells | [56] |
Liposome | Quercetin | Solubility | 75–150 nm | Antioxidant activity and stability | [55] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Solubility, stability and biocompatibility | 350–600 nm | Antioxidant activity and stability | [58] |
Liposome | Quercetin | Solubility | 50–300 nm | Anticancer and treatment of glioma | [59] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Solubility, stability and bioavailability | 100–200 nm | Anti-inflammatory activity, sustained-release properties and increased antioxidant activity | [60] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Solubility | 200 nm | Antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory | [61] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Solubility | 182.4 ± 89.2 nm | Anti-inflammatory | [62] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Bioavailability | 147 ± 6 nm | Wound healing, antibacterial activity and biocompatibility | [63] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Solubility and bioavailability | 121.81 ± 9.78 nm | Hepatoprotective | [64] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Solubility and bioavailability | 82.37 ± 2.19–92.42 ± 4.56 nm | Anticancer (skin) | [65] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Bioavailability and stability | 51.75–140.35 nm | Anticancer (skin) | [66] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Bioavailability | >270 nm | Anticancer | [68] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Solubility and delivery | 420–600 nm | Anticancer (cytotoxicity in lung and colon cancer) | [69] |
PEGylated liposomes | Resveratrol | Stability and biocompatibility | 86 ± 2.7–171 ± 27.8 nm | Oxidative stress (in vitro and ex vivo) | [46] |
Liposome | Resveratrol | Bioavailability and solubility | 182.3 ± 12.1–211.2 ± 0.8 nm | Anticancer (brain) | [73] |
Liposome | Resveratrol | Solubility and bioavailability | 206 ± 10–225 ± 10nm | Antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory | [74] |
Liposome | O. stamineus extract | Solubility | 152.5 ± 1.1 nm | Antioxidant activity | [78] |
Liposome | Green tea polyphenols | Stability, bioavailability and biotransformation | 64.5–252 nm | Antioxidant activity and controlled release | [79] |
Liposome (soy lecithin liposomes) | Green tea polyphenols (catechin and epigallocatechin gallate) | Stability and shelf- life | - a | Stability | [80] |
Liposome | Curcumin | Solubility and bioavailability | 45–130 nm | Anticancer (brain) | [71] |
Liposome | P. notoginseng saponins | Bioavailability, stability and in vitro release | 337.8 ± 40.2–117.1 ± 9.7 nm | Edema of brain and reduce the infarct volume | [82] |
Liposome | P. notoginseng saponins | Bioavailability | 40nm | Absorption from intestinal tract in rats | [83] |
Liposome | H. sabdariffa extract | Stability | 46 nm | Higher oxidative stability | [84] |
Transfersomes | Caffeine and minoxidil | Stability and release | - a | Alopecia | [96] |
Transfersomes | Apigenin | Stability and release | 35.41 nm | Skin cancer | [97] |
Transfersomes | Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (from C. sinensis) and hyaluronic | Solubility and stability | 101.2 ± 6.0 nm | Antioxidant and anti-aging properties (antioxidant and anti-aging effects in UV radiation induced skin damage) | [163] |
Ethosomes | Caffeic acid | Stability | 200 nm | Antioxidant | [99] |
Ethosomes | Ginsenoside from P. ginseng | Delivery | 108.5 to 322.9 nm | Enhanced skin permeation, retention and deposition in vitro | [100] |
Νiosomes | Herbal constituents | Solubility, bioavailability, controlled release and stability | - a | Blood–brain barrier targeted delivery | [104] |
Νiosomes | M. communis | Solubility and permeability | 5.3 ± 0.3 to 15.9 ± 2.2 μm | Antimicrobial activity | [105] |
Νiosomes | Flavonoid morusin | Solubility and controlled release | 400–500 nm (479 nm) | Antimicrobial activity | [106] |
Liposomes | Apigenin | Bioavailability | 304.10–361.46 nm | Anti-inflammatory | [164] |
Nanocrystals | Apigenin | Bioavailability | 439 ± 20 nm | Antioxidant activity | [165] |
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles | Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) | Biocompatibility and toxicity | 144–134 nm | Antiproliferative effect | [135] |
NLC | Silymarin | Bioavailability, controlled release | 213.6 ± 16.0 nm | Used as model | [152] |
NLC and SLN | Quercetin | Bioavailability, loading efficiency | 67.46–74.61 nm | Brain cancer | [154] |
NLC | Curcumin | Cell penetration | 100–1250 nm | Breast cancer | [155] |
NLC | Curcumin | In vitro digestion, controlled release | 225.8 ± 2.3 nm | Used as model | [156] |
NLC | Curcumin | In vivo antiplasmodial activity, controlled release | 145 nm | Malaria | [157] |
NLC | Curcumin and partially hydrolyzed ginsenoside | Bioavailability, controlled release | 150–200 nm | Used as model | [158] |
NLC | H. sabdariffa extract | Bioavailability, encapsulation efficiency, stability | 470 ± 8–344 ± 12 nm | Used as model | [159] |
NLC | Cinnamon essential oil | Protection and stability | 100 ± 1–120 ± 10 nm | Food beverages | [160] |
NLC | Peppermint essential oil | Bioavailability, protection | 40–250 nm | Antimicrobial, wound healing | [161] |
NLC | Sucupira essential oil | Controlled release | 148.1 ± 1 nm | Diabetes mellitus | [162] |
Carbohydrate as Wall Material | Carbohydrate Origin and Characteristics | Core Material | Encapsulation Process | Type of the Obtained Delivery System | Morphological Characteristics of the Obtained Delivery System | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Starch | Starch from water chestnut seeds, horse chestnut seeds and lotus stem | Resveratrol | Ultrasonication method | Nanocapsules | 419, 797 and 691 nm, increased amorphous character |
| [227] |
Starch | Starch from horse chestnut, water chestnut and lotus stem | Catechin | Ultrasonication | Nanoparticles | 322.7, 559.2 and 615.6 nm |
| [228] |
Starch | Starch from pea, corn and potato | Quercetin (standard) | Nanoprecipitation | Nanoparticles | Non-uniformly shaped and nanofiber-like nanoparticles (500 nm) from pea, corn and potato starch, respectively |
| [229] |
Starch | High-amylose corn starch with 70% amylose and low-amylose potato starch | Vitamin D3 | Ultrasonication | Nanoparticles | 32.0–99.2 nm |
| [230] |
Starch | Modified (extruded) | H. sabdariffa extract | Spray drying | Microparticles | Oval or round, <10 μm |
| [231] |
Starch | Modified from rice starch | Anthocyanin extract from purple rice bran | Spray drying | Microparticles | Spherical, 6.4 μm |
| [232] |
Starch | Dafozhi, damaling and daguo starches (amylose contents of 33.5%, 26.7% and 29.8%, respectively) | G. biloba extracts | Nanoprecipitation | Nanospheres | Spherical, 255–396 nm |
| [233] |
β-Cyclodextrin | β-Cyclodextrin (purity 98%) | Curcumin | Inclusion complexation | Particles | 2–3 µm |
| [234] |
β-Cyclodextrin | Methylated-β-cyclodextrin, Mw = 1191 Da | Resveratrol | Inclusion complexation | Particles | Irregular shape |
| [235] |
β-Cyclodextrin with β-glucan | - a | Saffron anthocyanins | Spray drying | Microcapsules | Irregular shape, <124 µm |
| [236] |
Maltodextrin | Maltodextrin | Saffron aqueous extract | Nano-spray drying | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 1.5–4.2 µm |
| [237] |
Maltodextrin | Commercial maltodextrin, 4-7 DE | Pineapple peel hydroalcoholic extract | Spray drying | Microparticles | Spherical, 18.2 µm |
| [238] |
Chitosan | Low molecular weight chitosan | Curcumin | Ionic gelation | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 167.3–251.5 nm |
| [239] |
Chitosan and pectin | Low molecular weight chitosan from shrimp (deacetylation degree 94.87%) and commercial grade low-methoxy pectin from citrus peel (degree of esterification 2.9%) | Garlic and holy basil essential oils | Ionic gelation | Hydrogel beads | Globular, smooth bead surface, 1.65–2.86 mm |
| [240] |
Chitosan and gum Arabic | Deacetylation degree 93% | Curcumin | Polyelectrolyte complexation | Nanoparticles | Spherical and smooth, 250–290 nm |
| [241] |
Chitosan | Medium molecular weight chitosan (deacetylation degree 75–85%) | Cardamom essential oil | Ionic gelation | Nanoparticles | 50–100 nm |
| [242] |
Chitosan | Medium molecular weight chitosan (deacetylation degree 75–85%) | Lime essential oil | Nanoprecipitation | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 6.1 ± 0.4 nm |
| [243] |
Chitosan | Medium molecular weight chitosan (deacetylation degree 84.8%) | Peppermint and green tea essential oils | Emulsification-ionic gelation | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 20–60 nm |
| [244] |
Chitosan | Medium molecular weight chitosan (deacetylation degree 75–85%) | Mentha piperita essential oil | Sol-gel method | Nanogel | 567.1–575.6 nm |
| [245] |
Pectin and zein | Citrus peel pectin | Resveratrol | Antisolvent precipitation and electrostatic deposition | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 235 nm |
| [246] |
Pectin with whey protein concentrate | Citrus low-methoxyl pectin (DE 16–20%) | D-Limonene | Nanocomplex formation | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 100 nm |
| [247] |
Pectin, zein and sodium caseinate | Citrus peel pectin | Eugenol | Nanocomplex formation and nano-spray drying | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 140 nm |
| [248] |
Pectin and egg yolk low density lipoprotein | Citrus peel pectin | Curcumin | Heat-induced nanocomplex formation | Nanogels | Spherical, <60 nm |
| [249] |
Pectin and pea protein isolate | High-methoxyl citrus pectin (DE 90%), beet pectin (DE 62%), low-methoxyl citrus pectin (DE 29%), apple pectin (DE 78%) | Curcumin | Nanocomplex formation | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 559.2 ± 6.2 nm |
| [250] |
Pectin | Citrus pectin | Citrus peel flavonoids | Ionic gelation | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 271.5 ± 5.3 nm |
| [251] |
Pectin with whey protein concentrate (WPC) | Citrus high-methoxyl pectin (DE 71.1%) | Olive leaf extract | Double-layered emulsification | Nanoemulsions | 1443 nm |
| [252] |
Pectin with whey protein concentrate | Citrus high-methoxyl pectin (DE 71.1%) | Saffron extract | Double-layered emulsification and spray drying | Nanoparticles | Spherical, 482.3–536.3 nm | [253] | |
Cellulose | Microcrystalline cellulose | Origanum vulgare. essential oil | Ammonium persulfate hydrolysis | Cellulose nanocrystals | 1.2–2.9 µm |
| [254] |
Cellulose | Bacterial cellulose produced by Komagataeibacter sucrofermentans | Cinnamon essential oil | Emulsification | Cellulose nanocrystals | Spherical and rod-like, 350–550 nm |
| [255] |
Cellulose with alginate beads | Cellulose nanocrystals | Thyme essential oil | Emulsification | Cellulose nanocrystals | <200 nm |
| [256] |
Cellulose | Cellulose nanocrystals extracted from pistachio shells | Peppermint oil | Drop-wise addition of a peppermint oil ethanolic solution in cellulose nanocrystals suspension | Cellulose nanocrystals | Rod-like and spherical, 36.6–55.5 nm |
| [257] |
Type of Polymeric Carrier | Encapsulated Material | Target of Encapsulation | Size of the Obtained Delivery System | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Micelles | 10-Hydroxycamptothecin | Solubility, stability and controlled release | 340 nm | Inhibitory effect on the activity of glutathione S-transferase with enhanced pharmaco-kinetic and targeting in liver | [292] |
Micelles | Shikonin (from Lithospermum erythrorhizon) | Solubility, stability and controlled release | 53–98 nm | Targeting to breast cancer cells by temperature regulation | [293] |
Micelles | S. grandiflora extract | Solubility, stability and controlled release | 24.95 ± 0.34 nm | Antibacterial activity in an in vitro study against S. aureus. | [294] |
Micelles | P. oceanica extract | Bioavailability, solubility and stability | 252–55.74 nm | Anticancer properties as it inhibits the migration of cancer cells | [295] |
Dendrimers (PAMAM) | Curcumin (from C. longa) | Solubility and controlled release | -a | Better effect on the antiproliferative activity against lung cancer cells | [302] |
Dendrimers (PAMAM) | Curcumin | Bioavailability, solubility | ~150 nm | -a | [303] |
Dendrimer G2 | Curcumin | Solubility | 239 nm | Effective anti-Plasmodium compound—against malaria | [304] |
Dendrimers (PAMAM) | Silybin (from milk thistle plant) | Solubility, stability and controlled release | -a | Drug solubilization/inherent dendrimer cytotoxicity was reduced | [305] |
Dendrimers (PAMAM) | Black carrot anthocyanins (from D. carota plant) | Solubility, stability, biocompatibility and controlled release | 134.8 nm | Cytotoxicity against neuroblastoma cell line | [306] |
Dendrimers (PAMAM) | Liquiritin (from G. uralensis plant) | Solubility, stability and biocompatibility | - a | Permeability of intestinal absorption | [307] |
Dendrimers (PAMAM) | O. majorana essential oil | Solubility, stability and volatility | 20–30 nm | Action against the fungus P. infestans | [309] |
Dendrimers | C. zeylanicum and C. winterianus essential oil | Controlled release | - a | Biopesticides | [310] |
Nanoparticles | C. citratus | Controlled release | 217.1 ± 19.9 nm | In vitro anti-herpetic activity | [312] |
Nanocapsules (PLA) | P. europaea extract | Controlled release | 271.2 ± 13–1750 ± 305 nm | Antibacterial efficiency | [316] |
Nanocapsules | A. satureioides essential oil | - a | 235.9 nm | Oxidative stress | [317] |
Type of Nanoemulsion | Encapsulated Material | Target of Encapsulation | Size of the Obtained Delivery System | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
W/O a | Hydroxysafflor yellow A | Bioavailability | 53.3 nm | Oral bioavailability | [339] |
O/W b | Emodin | Oral bioavailability | 116 ± 6.5 nm | Inhibition of UGT metabolism | [345] |
W/O a | Catechin | Bioavailability | 98.6 ± 1.01 nm | Photoprotection against UVA-induced oxidative stress | [346] |
W/O a and O/W b | Betulinic acid | Bioavailability and solubility | 150.3 ± 0.56 nm | Hepatoprotective and in vivo antioxidant efficacy activity | [347] |
O/W b | Curcumin | Oral bioavailability | 11.2 nm | Enhancement in Cmax | [348] |
W/O a | β-Elemene | Solubility | 52.68 nm | Antitumor activity | [349] |
O/W b | Quercetin | Bioavailability and solubility | 19.3 ± 0.17 nm | Contribute to preventing weight gain | [365] |
O/W/O | Quercetin | Bioavailability and solubility | 180–200 nm | (candidate for the treatment of obesity) | [366] |
O/W b | Curcumin and quercetin | Simultaneous drug administration and protection of the encapsulated compounds from degradation | 112.33 ± 1.51 nm | Protecting against lipid oxidation (chicken paté) | [367] |
O/W b | Curcumin and quercetin | Solubility, high encapsulation efficiency and long-term stability | 175.44 nm | Thermal stability, higher bioavailability and consequently drug effectiveness | [368] |
O/W b | Quercetin | Poor water solubility and high susceptibility to chemical degradation | 207–289 nm | Drug delivery system | [369] |
W/O a | Quercetin | Solubility | 38.9–266.67 nm | Antioxidant and antibacterial activity | [370] |
O/W b | Oregano oil | Solubility | 148 nm | Antimicrobial activity in food | [350] |
O/W b | Pterodon emarginatus | Solubility | 125 nm | Larvicidal property against Aedes aegypti | [371] |
O/W b | Garcinia mangostana extract | Bioavailability and solubility | 181 nm (167.3–222.0 nm) | - c | [372] |
O/W b | Pimpinella anisum essential oil | Solubility | 440 nm | Antimicrobial activity | [373] |
- c | Anthocyanin | Bioavailability and stability | - c | Antimicrobial activity | [374] |
- c | 2,4,6-triphenylaniline (TPA) | Stability and bioavailability | - c | Therapeutic drug delivery system in diabetes mellitus | [375] |
Inorganic Material | Core Material | Shape and Size of the Obtained Delivery System | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Silver | Cavendish banana peels | Spherical, crystalline, 55 nm | Antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, B. subtilis, E. coli and K. pneumonia | [394] |
Silver | A. vera | Octahedral, 5–50 nm | Antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, B. cereus, Micrococcus luteus, E. coli and K. pneumonia | [395] |
Silver | A. vera | Crystalline, 70–192 nm | Antibacterial activity against S. epidermidis and P. aeruginosa | [396] |
Silver | Tamarind fruit | Spherical, crystalline, 6–8 nm | Antibacterial activity against B. cereus, S. aureus, M. luteus, B. subtilis, Enterococcus sp., P. aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, E. coli and K. pneumonia | [397] |
Silver | Cinnamon | Spherical, 50–70 nm | Antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, B. cereus and Pseudomonas species | [398] |
Silver | A. vera | Spherical, crystalline, <15 nm | Antibacterial activity against Kocuria varians and mercury removal capacity | [399] |
Silver | White tea leaves | Spherical, 19.8 nm | Antioxidant activity | [400] |
Silver | Plumbago auriculata | Spherical, hexagonal, <50 nm | Antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus subtilis | [401] |
Silver | Citrus limon peels | Spherical, 59.7 nm | Antibacterial and cytotoxic activity | [402] |
Silver | Curcumin | Spherical, polycrystalline, 25–35 nm | Antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa, E. coli, B. subtilis and S. aureus | [403] |
Silver | Turmeric extracts | Spherical and quasi-spherical, crystalline, 18 nm | Antimicrobial activity against E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes | [404] |
Silver | Mentha piperita | Spherical, 35 nm | Effect on the neurological enzyme acetylcholinesterase to predict its neurotoxicity | [405] |
Silver | Madhuca latifolia aqueous extract | Spherical, crystalline, 2–30 nm | Antioxidant and antibacterial activity against E. coli, S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, S. faecalis, S. typhimurium | [406] |
Silver and gold | Quercetin | Crystalline 53 and 27, respectively | Anti-neuroinflammatory activity on BV-2 microglial cells | [407] |
Gold | Plumeria alba flower | Spherical, 15.6–28 nm | Antibacterial activity against E. coli | [408] |
Gold | Hibiscus sabdariffa leaves | Spherical, crystalline, 10–60 nm | Cytotoxic activity against U87 glioblastoma cells under hyperglycemic condition | [409] |
Gold | Mimosa tenuiflora | Spherical, 20–200 nm | Cytotoxic activity and catalytic properties | [410] |
Gold | Resveratrol | Spherical, crystalline, 14.9–16.1 nm | Anticancer activity against human breast, pancreatic and prostate cancer cells | [411] |
Gold | Hibiscus sabdariffa flower | Spherical, crystalline, 15–45 nm | Anti-acute myeloid leukemia effect in a leukemic rodent model | [412] |
Palladium | Hippophae rhamnoides leaves | Spherical, crystalline, 10 nm | Catalytic activity for the Suzuki–Miyaura coupling in water | [413] |
Palladium | Chrysophyllum cainito | Crystalline, 169.2 nm | Catalytic activity for C–C coupling and reduction reactions | [414] |
Titanium dioxide | Salvadora persica aqueous ethanolic extract | Crystalline,19.8 nm | Antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli | [415] |
Zinc oxide | Passiflora caerulea | Spherical, 70 nm | Antibacterial activity against microbes that cause urinary tract infections (e.g., E. coli, Enterococcus sp., Streptococcus sp.) | [416] |
Zinc oxide | Cassia fistula and Melia azedarach | Spherical, 3–68 nm | Antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli | [417] |
Zinc oxide | Sambucus ebulus | Spherical, hexagonal, 17 nm | Antibacterial activity against B. cereus, S. aureus and E. coli | [418] |
Zinc oxide | Deverra tortuosa | - a 9.3–31.2 nm | In vitro cytotoxic activity against two cancer cell lines, i.e., human colon adenocarcinoma Caco-2 and human lung adenocarcinoma A549 | [419] |
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Kyriakoudi, A.; Spanidi, E.; Mourtzinos, I.; Gardikis, K. Innovative Delivery Systems Loaded with Plant Bioactive Ingredients: Formulation Approaches and Applications. Plants 2021, 10, 1238. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061238
Kyriakoudi A, Spanidi E, Mourtzinos I, Gardikis K. Innovative Delivery Systems Loaded with Plant Bioactive Ingredients: Formulation Approaches and Applications. Plants. 2021; 10(6):1238. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061238
Chicago/Turabian StyleKyriakoudi, Anastasia, Eleni Spanidi, Ioannis Mourtzinos, and Konstantinos Gardikis. 2021. "Innovative Delivery Systems Loaded with Plant Bioactive Ingredients: Formulation Approaches and Applications" Plants 10, no. 6: 1238. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061238
APA StyleKyriakoudi, A., Spanidi, E., Mourtzinos, I., & Gardikis, K. (2021). Innovative Delivery Systems Loaded with Plant Bioactive Ingredients: Formulation Approaches and Applications. Plants, 10(6), 1238. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061238