The Remarkable Journey of a Weed: Biology and Management of Annual Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) in Conservation Cropping Systems of Australia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Conservation Cropping Practiced in Australia
3. Biology and Ecology
3.1. Seed Germination Ecology and Seedbank Dynamics
3.2. Life Cycle and Population Dynamics
4. Interference with Crop Production
4.1. Resource Competition
4.2. Allelopathic Effects
4.3. Herbicide Resistance
Herbicide Group | Subgroup | Herbicide | Year First Reported | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fat synthesis/Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) inhibitors | Aryloxyphenoxypropionates | Diclofop-methyl | 1982 | [80] |
Cyclohexanediones | Sethoxydim | 1982 | [64] | |
Acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors | Imidazolinones | Imazapic/imazpyr | 1982 | [64] |
Sulfonylureas | Chlorsulfuron, sulfometuron | 1986 | [81] | |
Microtubule assembly inhibitors | Dinitroanilines | Trifluralin | 1982 | [64,82] |
Benzamides | Propyzamide | 2018 | [78] | |
Lipid synthesis inhibitors | Thiocarbamates | Triallate/prosulfocarb | 1982/2018 | [64,78] |
Very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA) inhibitors | Chloroacetamides | Metolachlor/metazachlor | 1982/2019 | [64,79] |
Isoxazoline | Pyroxasulfone | 2018 | [78] | |
5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3phosphate (EPSP) synthase inhibitors | Glycines | Glyphosate | 1996, 1998 | [72,74] |
Group Q (Inhibitors of carotenoid biosynthesis unknown target) | Isoxazolidinones | Clomazone | 1982 | [64] |
Triazoles | Amitrole | 1988 | [83] |
Herbicide Group | Subgroup | Resistance (%) |
---|---|---|
ACCase inhibitors | Aryloxyphenoxypropionates | 81 [66], 56 [67], 96 to 98 [69], 18 [84] |
Cyclohexanediones | 65 [69], 1 [84] | |
ALS inhibitors | Imidazolinones | 65 [66], 38 [67], 7 [84] |
Sulfonylureas | 70 [66], 53 [67], 96 to 98 [69], 24 [84] | |
Photosystem II inhibitors | Triazines | 2 [69], 0 to 1 [66,71,84,85] |
Microtubule assembly inhibitors | Dinitroanilines | 27 to 33 [71,84], <6 [65,66,84] |
EPSP synthase inhibitors | Glycines | 5 to 7 [69,75], 4 [85], 0 to 1 [66,84] |
5. Management
5.1. Chemical Control
5.1.1. Pre-Sowing Non-Selective (or ‘Knockdown’) Herbicides
5.1.2. Pre-Emergent Herbicides
5.1.3. Post-Emergent Herbicides
5.1.4. Pre-Harvest Crop-Topping
5.2. Cultural and Physical Control Methods
5.2.1. Grazing
5.2.2. Sowing Time Adjustment
5.2.3. Tillage Options
5.2.4. Other Methods
5.3. Crop Competition
5.3.1. Competitive Cultivars
5.3.2. High Seed Rate/Crop Density
5.3.3. Narrow Row Spacing
5.3.4. East–West Row Orientation
5.4. Use of Allelopathic Crops
5.5. Biological Control
5.6. Harvest Weed Seed Control
5.7. Integrated Management
6. Lessons Learnt and Future Directions
- Annual ryegrass populations have shown significant flexibility in phenology by expanding their germination and growth ability over a wide range of environmental conditions, especially varying temperatures. This could have large implications in terms of further temporal and spatial spread of this weed across crop production systems in Australia. Therefore, a better understanding of underlying biological mechanisms for this potential adaptive evolution under changing management and climatic conditions is required.
- Annual ryegrass populations have shown the ability to not only adapt to a wide range of herbicides but also to other management tactics. Therefore, it is important to continuously monitor its biology and ecology under a range of management selection pressures in order to discover potential adaptations at early stages. For example, research on the potential speed of annual ryegrass adaptation to HWSC and other forms of cultural control, is crucial to modify/improve the management programs accordingly.
- Herbicide programs should be regularly assessed to make sure they are diversified to avoid or delay the evolution of resistance.
- Management programs must be based on ‘diversity’ and a ‘system approach’ keeping in view the needs and limitations of individual farms and regions. There is a need for long-term seedbank and weed population dynamic studies that investigate the impacts of conservation cropping systems on different aspects of annual ryegrass biology.
- Research on advancing/improving innovative weed control methods such as alternate non-chemical weed control methods is needed. Recent technological advances have enabled in-crop site-specific application of many alternative weed control techniques such as targeted herbicide application/optical spot spraying or mechanical weed removal. Further optimisation and adoption of such innovative tools should be prioritised.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Purpose of Tillage | Tillage Method | Example | Percentage of Seed at Different Depths (cm) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 0 to 1 | 1 to 5 | 5 to 10 | 10 to 20 | |||
Shallow soil cultivation, for burial of seed and crop residue | Rotary harrow | Phoenix Harrow; evenly distributes soil to 5 cm. | 15 | 50 | 35 | 0 | 0 |
Autumn tickle | Kelly chain; distributes 90% of surface seeds to a depth of 1 to 5 cm. | 10 | 30 | 60 | 0 | 0 | |
Full disturbance to address soil constraints | Multiple | Soil inversion using a mouldboard plough | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 96 |
Crop seeding | Minimum tillage | Direct drill with full cut cultivation; tynes cultivate the soil to 5 cm and provide a disturbed seed bed. | 10 | 50 | 39 | 1 | 0 |
Zero tillage | Disc seeding: flat discs are used to create an opening in the soils (to 5 cm) which is followed by a tyne to deliver seed and fertiliser into the slot, often followed by a press wheel to close the slot. | 95 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | |
No-tillage | Knifepoint seeding; narrow tynes commonly referred to as knife points resulting in 5 to 20% cultivation of the soil surface to 5 cm. Knife points will throw a small amount of soil across the surface, effectively burying the surface seed. | 10 | 80 | 10 | 0 | 0 |
Cultural Method | Brief Description | State | Control Achieved * | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Grazing | Grazing the field at an optimum stocking rate, so sheep can readily graze all the plant parts, especially seed heads of annual ryegrass. | Victoria (Vic) | 80% reduction in density | [100] |
WA | 95% reduction in seedset | [101] | ||
WA | 90% reduction in density | [102] | ||
WA | 93% reduction in seedset | [103] | ||
Hay | Cutting the excess pasture for hay consumption to reduce the density and seed production of annual ryegrass. | Vic | 84% reduction in density | [100] |
NSW | 45% reduction in density | [90] | ||
WA | 95% reduction in density | [104] | ||
Silage | Cutting the pasture for silage production in order to reduce annual ryegrass density. | NSW | 91% reduction in density | [90] |
WA | 98% reduction in density | [104] | ||
Burning | Burning pastures or stubbles can destroy the annual ryegrass infestation completely and kill the weed seeds present on the soil surface. | Vic | 66% reduction in density | [100] |
Vic | 35 to 57% reduction in density | [105] | ||
SA | 60% reduction in seed number | [106] | ||
NSW | Up to 98% reduction in seedset | [107] | ||
WA | 82% reduction in seed number | [108] | ||
Inversion/Mouldboard ploughing | Deep inversion tillage to put the weed seeds to a greater depth from where they cannot germinate/emerge. | Vic | 73% reduction in density | [100] |
WA | >95% reduction in density | [109] | ||
WA | 96% reduction in density | [110] | ||
WA | 100% reduction in seedbank after four years of burial at 15 cm depth | [111] | ||
Autumn tickle/Shallow cultivation | Shallow tillage stimulates germination of weed seeds by putting them in a physical depth of 1 to 3 cm, and then controlling them effectively. | Vic | 59% reduction in density | [100] |
WA | 51 to 63% reduction in density | [112] | ||
NSW | 37% reduction in density | [113] | ||
Delayed sowing | Crop plating is delayed by up to four weeks beyond the optimum time to maximize emergence of annual ryegrass, and then controlling them through direct cultivation or use of burndown herbicides. | SA | 52% reduction in weed density with three weeks delay in sowing | [106] |
SA | 11 to 30% reduction in weed density with each week delay in sowing | [88] | ||
Green manuring | Green manuring is the incorporation of green crop residues into the soil with a mechanical implement like disc plough. | NSW | 97% reduction in density | [90] |
WA | 94% reduction in density | [114] | ||
WA | 80% reduction in density | [115] | ||
WA | 98% reduction in density | [104] | ||
Brown manuring | Brown manuring is the desiccation of weeds and crops at the flowering stage by using burndown herbicides to reduce the seed production of target weeds. | WA | 79% reduction in density | [114] |
WA | 98% reduction in density | [104] | ||
Mulching | Mulching involves slashing or mowing the pasture or crops and then laying it on the soil surface to ensure more soil contact and reduce moisture loss through evaporation. | WA | 82% reduction in density | [114] |
Mowing | Physical cutting of annual ryegrass plants with a mechanical implement before the seed production stage. | WA | 98% reduction in density | [104] |
Swathing | The harvesting of a crop at maturity through physical (windrowing) or chemical means (desiccation) is called swathing. | WA | 45% reduction in density | [104] |
HWSC System | Brief Description | State | Seed-Kill (%) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chaff carts | During harvesting, chaff carts can be towed just behind the header to gather the chaff material, which is either burnt in the coming autumn or utilized as livestock feed. | SA | 52 | [106] |
SA | 60 to 80 | [3] | ||
WA | 75 to 85 | [77] | ||
WA | 32 to 75 | [163] | ||
WA, Vic, NSW | 60 | [164] | ||
Narrow windrow burning | A chute can mount to the rear of the harvester which concentrates the entire chaff material into the narrow windrow (50 or 60 cm in depth) for onward stubble burning in the favourable autumn season. | WA | 99 | [165] |
WA | 30 to 90 | [163] | ||
WA, Vic, NSW | 60 | [161] | ||
Baler direct system | This HWSC system comprises of a big square baler which can attach to the grain harvester in collecting chaff material and then transforming it into bales. | WA | 95 | [77] |
Chaff-tramlining and chaff-lining | In this system, the chaff material is concentrated into narrow rows of 20 to 30 cm width. If this material is confined in narrow-rows on the specific wheel tracks, it is known as chaff-tramlining and if it is confined amid stubble rows, it is called chaff-lining. These chaff lines are constructed by equipment attached to the rear of the harvester and used for collection and storage of chaff material. | Queensland (Qld), NSW | 73 to 89 | [166] |
Qld, NSW | 59 | [166] | ||
Harrington seed destructor | This system comprises of cage mill which processes the chaff material for the destruction of weed seeds and then discard them directly into chaff delivery systems. | WA | 95 | [163] |
WA | 35 to 90 | [163] | ||
WA, Vic, NSW | 60 | [162] | ||
Integrated Harrington seed destructor | The is a new version of the Harrington seed destructor which is based on the unique design of impact mill which can mount on the back of the harvester to process the chaff material and kill the weed seeds. | - | 93 | [167] |
WA | 88 to 98 | [168] |
Integrated Management | State | Control Achieved | References |
---|---|---|---|
Grazing + knockdown herbicide | WA | 80% reduction in seedbank | [102] |
Grazing + knockdown herbicide | Vic | 85% reduction in density | [105] |
Crop topping + pre-emergent herbicide | SA | 99% reduction in seedset | [171] |
Autumn tickle + delayed sowing for six weeks | WA | 73% reduction in density | [112] |
Silage + paraquat | WA | 95% reduction in seedset | [172] |
Narrow row spacing + harvest weed seed control | WA | 100% reduction in seedset | [52] |
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Bajwa, A.A.; Latif, S.; Borger, C.; Iqbal, N.; Asaduzzaman, M.; Wu, H.; Walsh, M. The Remarkable Journey of a Weed: Biology and Management of Annual Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) in Conservation Cropping Systems of Australia. Plants 2021, 10, 1505. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081505
Bajwa AA, Latif S, Borger C, Iqbal N, Asaduzzaman M, Wu H, Walsh M. The Remarkable Journey of a Weed: Biology and Management of Annual Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) in Conservation Cropping Systems of Australia. Plants. 2021; 10(8):1505. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081505
Chicago/Turabian StyleBajwa, Ali Ahsan, Sajid Latif, Catherine Borger, Nadeem Iqbal, Md Asaduzzaman, Hanwen Wu, and Michael Walsh. 2021. "The Remarkable Journey of a Weed: Biology and Management of Annual Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) in Conservation Cropping Systems of Australia" Plants 10, no. 8: 1505. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081505