Plants

692 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plant Polygalacturonases Involved in Cell Elongation and Separation—The Same but Different?

by Yashodar Babu and Martin Bayer

Plants 2014, 3(4), 613-623; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040613 - 9 Dec 2014

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8240

Plant cells are surrounded by the primary cell wall, a rigid framework that needs to be modified in order to allow cell growth. Recent data suggest that in addition to the cellulose-hemicellulose network, the pectin matrix plays a critical role in determining the [...] Read more.

Plant cells are surrounded by the primary cell wall, a rigid framework that needs to be modified in order to allow cell growth. Recent data suggest that in addition to the cellulose-hemicellulose network, the pectin matrix plays a critical role in determining the elasticity of the primary cell wall. Polygalacturonases are key homogalacturonan-hydrolyzing enzymes that function in a wide range of developmental processes. In this review, we present recent progress in understanding the role of polygalacturonases during cell elongation and separation. In discussing the specificities and possible redundancies of polygalacturonases, we focus particularly on newly discovered Arabidopsis mutants that have measurable loss-of-function phenotypes. However, data from other species are included when necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Cell Walls: Chemical and Metabolic Analysis)

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546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pistil Smut Infection Increases Ovary Production, Seed Yield Components, and Pseudosexual Reproductive Allocation in Buffalograss

by Ambika Chandra and David R. Huff

Plants 2014, 3(4), 594-612; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040594 - 1 Dec 2014

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8531

Abstract

Sex expression of dioecious buffalograss [Bouteloua dactyloides Columbus (syn. Buchloë dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm.)] is known to be environmentally stable with approximate 1:1, male to female, sex ratios. Here we show that infection by the pistil smut fungus [Salmacisia buchloëana Huff & [...] Read more.

Sex expression of dioecious buffalograss [Bouteloua dactyloides Columbus (syn. Buchloë dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm.)] is known to be environmentally stable with approximate 1:1, male to female, sex ratios. Here we show that infection by the pistil smut fungus [Salmacisia buchloëana Huff & Chandra (syn. Tilletia buchloëana Kellerman and Swingle)] shifts sex ratios of buffalograss to be nearly 100% phenotypically hermaphroditic. In addition, pistil smut infection decreased vegetative reproductive allocation, increased most seed yield components, and increased pseudosexual reproductive allocation in both sex forms compared to uninfected clones. In female sex forms, pistil smut infection resulted in a 26 fold increase in ovary production and a 35 fold increase in potential harvest index. In male sex forms, pistil smut infection resulted in 2.37 fold increase in floret number and over 95% of these florets contained a well-developed pistil. Although all ovaries of infected plants are filled with fungal teliospores and hence reproductively sterile, an average male-female pair of infected plants exhibited an 87 fold increase in potential harvest index compared to their uninfected clones. Acquiring an ability to mimic the effects of pistil smut infection would enhance our understanding of the flowering process in grasses and our efforts to increase seed yield of buffalograss and perhaps other grasses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Reproductive Transition and Flower Development)

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1419 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Plasmolysis: Loss of Turgor and Beyond

by Ingeborg Lang, Stefan Sassmann, Brigitte Schmidt and George Komis

Plants 2014, 3(4), 583-593; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040583 - 26 Nov 2014

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 44922

Abstract

Plasmolysis is a typical response of plant cells exposed to hyperosmotic stress. The loss of turgor causes the violent detachment of the living protoplast from the cell wall. The plasmolytic process is mainly driven by the vacuole. Plasmolysis is reversible (deplasmolysis) and characteristic [...] Read more.

Plasmolysis is a typical response of plant cells exposed to hyperosmotic stress. The loss of turgor causes the violent detachment of the living protoplast from the cell wall. The plasmolytic process is mainly driven by the vacuole. Plasmolysis is reversible (deplasmolysis) and characteristic to living plant cells. Obviously, dramatic structural changes are required to fulfill a plasmolytic cycle. In the present paper, the fate of cortical microtubules and actin microfilaments is documented throughout a plasmolytic cycle in living cells of green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagged Arabidopsis lines. While the microtubules became wavy and highly bundled during plasmolysis, cortical filamentous actin remained in close vicinity to the plasma membrane lining the sites of concave plasmolysis and adjusting readily to the diminished size of the protoplast. During deplasmolysis, cortical microtubule re-organization progressed slowly and required up to 24 h to complete the restoration of the original pre-plasmolytic pattern. Actin microfilaments, again, recovered faster and organelle movement remained intact throughout the whole process. In summary, the hydrostatic skeleton resulting from the osmotic state of the plant vacuole “overrules” the stabilization by cortical cytoskeletal elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Vacuole)

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686 KiB

Open AccessReview

Redox Modulation Matters: Emerging Functions for Glutaredoxins in Plant Development and Stress Responses

by Shutian Li

Plants 2014, 3(4), 559-582; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040559 - 25 Nov 2014

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 9097

Abstract

Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are small ubiquitous glutathione (GSH)-dependent oxidoreductases that catalyze the reversible reduction of protein disulfide bridges or protein-GSH mixed disulfide bonds via a dithiol or monothiol mechanism, respectively. Three major classes of GRXs, with the CPYC-type, the CGFS-type or the CC-type active [...] Read more.

Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are small ubiquitous glutathione (GSH)-dependent oxidoreductases that catalyze the reversible reduction of protein disulfide bridges or protein-GSH mixed disulfide bonds via a dithiol or monothiol mechanism, respectively. Three major classes of GRXs, with the CPYC-type, the CGFS-type or the CC-type active site, have been identified in many plant species. In spite of the well-characterized roles for GRXs in Escherichia coli, yeast and humans, the biological functions of plant GRXs have been largely enigmatic. The CPYC-type and CGFS-type GRXs exist in all organisms, from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, whereas the CC-type class has thus far been solely identified in land plants. Only the number of the CC-type GRXs has enlarged dramatically during the evolution of land plants, suggesting their participation in the formation of more complex plants adapted to life on land. A growing body of evidence indicates that plant GRXs are involved in numerous cellular pathways. In this review, emphasis is placed on the recently emerging functions for GRXs in floral organ development and disease resistance. Notably, CC-type GRXs have been recruited to participate in these two seemingly unrelated processes. Besides, the current knowledge of plant GRXs in the assembly and delivery of iron-sulfur clusters, oxidative stress responses and arsenic resistance is also presented. As GRXs require GSH as an electron donor to reduce their target proteins, GSH-related developmental processes, including the control of flowering time and the development of postembryonic roots and shoots, are further discussed. Profiling the thiol redox proteome using high-throughput proteomic approaches and measuring cellular redox changes with fluorescent redox biosensors will help to further unravel the redox-regulated physiological processes in plants. Full article

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1232 KiB

Open AccessReview

Penium margaritaceum: A Unicellular Model Organism for Studying Plant Cell Wall Architecture and Dynamics

by David S. Domozych

Plants 2014, 3(4), 543-558; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040543 - 18 Nov 2014

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9861

Abstract

Penium margaritaceum is a new and valuable unicellular model organism for studying plant cell wall structure and developmental dynamics. This charophyte has a cell wall composition remarkably similar to the primary cell wall of many higher plants and clearly-defined inclusive zones containing specific [...] Read more.

Penium margaritaceum is a new and valuable unicellular model organism for studying plant cell wall structure and developmental dynamics. This charophyte has a cell wall composition remarkably similar to the primary cell wall of many higher plants and clearly-defined inclusive zones containing specific polymers. Penium has a simple cylindrical phenotype with a distinct region of focused wall synthesis. Specific polymers, particularly pectins, can be identified using monoclonal antibodies raised against polymers of higher plant cell walls. Immunofluorescence-based labeling is easily performed using live cells that subsequently can be returned to culture and monitored. This feature allows for rapid assessment of wall expansion rates and identification of multiple polymer types in the wall microarchitecture during the cell cycle. Cryofixation by means of spray freezing provides excellent transmission electron microscopy imaging of the cell, including its elaborate endomembrane and cytoskeletal systems, both integral to cell wall development. Penium’s fast growth rate allows for convenient microarray screening of various agents that alter wall biosynthesis and metabolism. Finally, recent successful development of transformed cell lines has allowed for non-invasive imaging of proteins in cells and for RNAi reverse genetics that can be used for cell wall biosynthesis studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Cell Walls: Chemical and Metabolic Analysis)

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607 KiB

Open AccessReview

Structural Diversity and Function of Xyloglucan Sidechain Substituents

by Alex Schultink, Lifeng Liu, Lei Zhu and Markus Pauly

Plants 2014, 3(4), 526-542; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040526 - 13 Nov 2014

Cited by 117 | Viewed by 11968

Abstract

Xyloglucan (XyG) is a hemicellulose found in the cell walls of all land plants including early-divergent groups such as liverworts, hornworts and mosses. The basic structure of XyG, a xylosylated glucan, is similar in all of these plants but additional substituents can vary [...] Read more.

Xyloglucan (XyG) is a hemicellulose found in the cell walls of all land plants including early-divergent groups such as liverworts, hornworts and mosses. The basic structure of XyG, a xylosylated glucan, is similar in all of these plants but additional substituents can vary depending on plant family, tissue, and developmental stage. A comprehensive list of known XyG sidechain substituents is assembled including their occurrence within plant families, thereby providing insight into the evolutionary origin of the various sidechains. Recent advances in DNA sequencing have enabled comparative genomics approaches for the identification of XyG biosynthetic enzymes in Arabidopsis thaliana as well as in non-model plant species. Characterization of these biosynthetic genes not only allows the determination of their substrate specificity but also provides insights into the function of the various substituents in plant growth and development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Cell Walls: Chemical and Metabolic Analysis)

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2053 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Glycoside Hydrolase Activities in Cell Walls of Sclerenchyma Cells in the Inflorescence Stems of Arabidopsis thaliana Visualized in Situ

by Alicja Banasiak, Farid M. Ibatullin, Harry Brumer and Ewa J. Mellerowicz

Plants 2014, 3(4), 513-525; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040513 - 12 Nov 2014

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 8496

Abstract

Techniques for in situ localization of gene products provide indispensable information for understanding biological function. In the case of enzymes, biological function is directly related to activity, and therefore, knowledge of activity patterns is central to understanding the molecular controls of plant development. [...] Read more.

Techniques for in situ localization of gene products provide indispensable information for understanding biological function. In the case of enzymes, biological function is directly related to activity, and therefore, knowledge of activity patterns is central to understanding the molecular controls of plant development. We have previously developed a novel type of fluorogenic substrate for revealing glycoside hydrolase activity in planta, based on resorufin β-glycosides Here, we explore a wider range of such substrates to visualize glycoside hydrolase activities in Arabidopsis inflorescence stems in real time, especially highlighting distinct distribution patterns of these activities in the secondary cell walls of sclerenchyma cells. The results demonstrate that β-1,4-glucosidase, β-1,4-glucanase and β-1,4-galactosidase activities accompany secondary wall deposition. In contrast, xyloglucanase activity follows a different pattern, with the highest signal observed in mature cells, concentrated in the middle lamella. These data further the understanding of the process of cell wall deposition and function in sclerenchymatic tissues of plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Cell Walls: Chemical and Metabolic Analysis)

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1065 KiB

Open AccessReview

Senescence-Associated Vacuoles, a Specific Lytic Compartment for Degradation of Chloroplast Proteins?

by Cristian A. Carrión, Dana E. Martínez, M. Lorenza Costa and Juan José Guiamet

Plants 2014, 3(4), 498-512; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040498 - 11 Nov 2014

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 8381

Abstract

Degradation of chloroplasts and chloroplast components is a distinctive feature of leaf senescence. In spite of its importance in the nutrient economy of plants, knowledge about the mechanism(s) involved in the breakdown of chloroplast proteins is incomplete. A novel class of vacuoles, “senescence-associated [...] Read more.

Degradation of chloroplasts and chloroplast components is a distinctive feature of leaf senescence. In spite of its importance in the nutrient economy of plants, knowledge about the mechanism(s) involved in the breakdown of chloroplast proteins is incomplete. A novel class of vacuoles, “senescence-associated vacuoles” (SAVs), characterized by intense proteolytic activity appear during senescence in chloroplast-containing cells of leaves. Since SAVs contain some chloroplast proteins, they are candidate organelles to participate in chloroplast breakdown. In this review we discuss the characteristics of SAVs, and their possible involvement in the degradation of Rubisco, the most abundant chloroplast protein. Finally, SAVs are compared with other extra-plastidial protein degradation pathways operating in senescing leaves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Vacuole)

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1287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying the Effects of Photoperiod, Temperature and Daily Irradiance on Flowering Time of Soybean Isolines

by Elroy R. Cober, Daniel F. Curtis, Douglas W. Stewart and Malcolm J. Morrison

Plants 2014, 3(4), 476-497; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040476 - 7 Nov 2014

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8462

Abstract

Soybean isolines with different combinations of photoperiod sensitivity alleles were planted in a greenhouse at different times during the year resulting in natural variation in daily incident irradiance and duration. The time from planting to first flower were observed. Mathematical models, using additive [...] Read more.

Soybean isolines with different combinations of photoperiod sensitivity alleles were planted in a greenhouse at different times during the year resulting in natural variation in daily incident irradiance and duration. The time from planting to first flower were observed. Mathematical models, using additive and multiplicative modes, were developed to quantify the effect of photoperiod, temperature, photoperiod-temperature interactions, rate of photoperiod change, and daily solar irradiance on flowering time. Observed flowering times correlated with predicted times (R² = 0.92, Standard Error of the Estimate (SSE) = 2.84 d, multiplicative mode; R² = 0.91, SSE = 2.88 d, additive mode). The addition of a rate of photoperiod change function and an irradiance function to the temperature and photoperiod functions improved the accuracy of flowering time prediction. The addition of a modified photoperiod function, which allowed for photoperiod sensitivity at shorter photoperiods, improved prediction of flowering time. Both increasing and decreasing rate of photoperiod change, as well as low levels of daily irradiance delayed flowering in soybean. The complete model, which included terms for the rate of photoperiod change, photoperiod, temperature and irradiance, predicted time to first flower in soybean across a range of environmental conditions with an SEE of 3.6 days when tested with independent data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Reproductive Transition and Flower Development)

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482 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plant Responses to Simultaneous Biotic and Abiotic Stress: Molecular Mechanisms

by Ines Ben Rejeb, Victoria Pastor and Brigitte Mauch-Mani

Plants 2014, 3(4), 458-475; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants3040458 - 15 Oct 2014

Cited by 555 | Viewed by 42359

Abstract

Plants are constantly confronted to both abiotic and biotic stresses that seriously reduce their productivity. Plant responses to these stresses are complex and involve numerous physiological, molecular, and cellular adaptations. Recent evidence shows that a combination of abiotic and biotic stress can have [...] Read more.

Plants are constantly confronted to both abiotic and biotic stresses that seriously reduce their productivity. Plant responses to these stresses are complex and involve numerous physiological, molecular, and cellular adaptations. Recent evidence shows that a combination of abiotic and biotic stress can have a positive effect on plant performance by reducing the susceptibility to biotic stress. Such an interaction between both types of stress points to a crosstalk between their respective signaling pathways. This crosstalk may be synergistic and/or antagonistic and include among others the involvement of phytohormones, transcription factors, kinase cascades, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). In certain cases, such crosstalk can lead to a cross-tolerance and enhancement of a plant’s resistance against pathogens. This review aims at giving an insight into cross-tolerance between abiotic and biotic stress, focusing on the molecular level and regulatory pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Abiotic and Biotic Stresses in Plants)

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Plants, Volume 3, Issue 4 (December 2014) – 10 articles , Pages 458-623

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