Guardians of the Circassian Heritage Language: Exploring a Teacher’s Agency in the Endeavour of Endangered Language Maintenance

Abstract

The Circassian language is the heritage language (HL) of a small minority group in Israel. Since its classification as an endangered language around the globe, the focus has been put on effective maintenance programs. Changes in education methods within Circassian communities were inevitable. In Israel, the Circassian Maintenance Program is crucial in primary schools, where formal literacy instruction in the Circassian language begins in fifth grade. This study examined the agentic role of the Circassian literacy teacher in engaging students in learning their heritage language and its maintenance, as expressed in her attitudes, beliefs and knowledge and her classroom strategies. This three-month-long ethnographic data collection was conducted at the teacher’s study centre “Nal” (i.e., a treasure in Circassian). Data was gathered through classroom observations and semi-structured interviews with a Circassian HL teacher to understand her attitudes, beliefs and knowledge and to identify strategies to encourage student engagement in HL learning. In general, the teacher showed expertise in the HL and authentic use of it, as well as cultural and religious competence, adaptability, and flexibility. In addition, she encouraged children’s agency and autonomy and provided individualised support, integration of technology and reflective practice. The results indicated that a sense of identity, unity and belonging to the community are all held together by the pillar of HL knowledge. By engaging her students in translanguaging practices, the teacher promoted their awareness of language patterns, vocabulary and grammar in both Circassian and other languages of their wide linguistic repertoire (Hebrew, Arabic and English).

1. Introduction

This case study’s aim was twofold: to explore the Circassian literacy teacher’s attitudes, beliefs and knowledge (hereafter ABK) about Circassian as a heritage language (hereafter HL) teaching and to identify classroom strategies that the teacher employs to engage students in learning. In this study, the Circassian language is defined as a heritage language, meaning “the language experienced in the home, although other terms are also used, such as home, minority, and community language, or also regional, indigenous, ancestral, and local language” (Ortega 2020, p. 16). Within an educational context, Polinsky and Kagan (2007) consider HL learners to be heterogeneous because of their diverse levels of competence in this language.

We begin with a brief description of the study context, which concerns the Circassian community in general and specifically in Israel. Then, we present the main assumptions regarding the Circassian language and its status in Israel, followed by the main theoretical concepts.

2. Context of the Study

The Circassian language is the HL of a small minority group in Israel. Circassians are native speakers of the Circassian (Adyghe) language. There is a division of the Circassian language into West and East dialects. The West Circassian dialects, Shapsug and Abzakh, are used in Israel https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassian_languages (accessed on 13 July 2024). Historically, Israeli Circassians are from the Northwest of the Caucasus and were survivors of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 1860s and 1870s. They migrated to the Eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea during the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Today, two separate Israeli Circassian villages have approximately 5000 Circassian citizens, of whom the majority speak at least four languages. Specifically, Circassian students are a distinctive group as they are required to learn four languages for various daily purposes: Arabic for Quranic reading, Hebrew as their home country’s dominant language, English for academic use and Circassian as their native tongue (Olshtain and Nissim-Amitai 2004; Reichel 2010). There is an elementary school in each of the two villages and one secondary school in one of the villages, specifically for the Circassian population.

In general, regarding the place of Circassian as an HL, compared to other diaspora Circassian communities in the Middle East and throughout the world, “the Circassians of Israel have been particularly successful in maintaining their traditional language, culture, and customs” (Rao 2020, p. 3). Thus, the preservation of their mother tongue is being instilled in Circassian children to keep it alive for future generations. The reasoning for this practice is that the Circassian language embodies an integral part of its speakers’ identity, and for many years, schools focused entirely on using the language in its spoken form. Today, formal literacy instruction in the Circassian language begins only in the fifth grade. Notably, however, only after the Russian Revolution in 1917 did the Circassian community adopt the Cyrillic alphabet to represent the written form of the Circassian spoken language (Stern; Isleem 2019).

Circassian has been classified by UNESCO as “endangered worldwide”.1 Overall, there are 1.5 million speakers of the Circassian language https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/circassian (accessed on 13 July 2024). Regarding its Israeli context, the Circassian language is fading in the face of the increasing use of Hebrew as a socially dominant language also within the homes. The current focus of community leadership, however, is on “reevaluation of the role of the school in revitalizing the native language” (Isleem 2019, p. 109) and in promoting the Circassian Language Literacy program. This program is an integral part of the Circassian schools in Israel, especially in primary schools, where formal literacy lessons are taught from fifth grade. These schools have their own tailored curriculum that is approved by the Israeli Ministry of Education. Non-language subjects are taught mainly in Hebrew because Hebrew textbooks are used. Language subjects are taught in the target language. Any further explanations are done in Circassian.

In general, on the community level, language endangerment can be reversed if the children are motivated to learn the language with the help of the surviving speakers in specific settings. Literacy programs that contain all the components necessary for learners to master reading and writing in HL education are of the utmost importance. In turn, such programs foster ethnic identity awareness, such as self-identification and belonging and negative and positive attitudes towards one’s ethnic group (McNeill 2001).

However, it should be noted that the primary school’s HL teacher under our investigation in this study is “only one qualified instructor teaching the Circassian language and heritage” (Isleem 2019, p. 109). The teacher faced several challenges as she attempted to assemble an ideal program that would fit the linguistic case of the Circassian community. According to the existing program, the material taught in the HL classroom will continue to grow as students reach junior high school. However, after junior high school, students will rarely be required to operate on the acquired literacy skills in Circassian due to its irrelevance and lack of use in Israel. However, while some parents expressed concerns about potential time investment, the teacher and the school remained optimistic. They aspire for students to maintain their interest in the Circassian language, including literacy, as an integral facet of their identity (based on personal correspondence with the teacher). Additionally, there is hope that these students will emerge as proactive contributors within the Circassian community long after their graduation (Isleem 2019).

In this complex socio-linguistic context, as educators and researchers, we view it as necessary to provide an in-depth analysis of the agency of the Circassian literacy teacher struggling to engage the students in learning a written form of their HL. Many researchers have addressed the issue of HL teaching (e.g., Kagan and Martin 2017; Carreira and Kagan 2018). However, the question of how HL teachers enact their agency during the teaching process has scarcely been researched. The present study aimed to fill this void by zooming into the teacher’s beliefs and knowledge and classroom strategies aimed to engage students in HL literacy learning. Thus, the study can considerably contribute to the Circassian community and to the global struggle to maintain HL literacy.

3. Theoretical Background

The theoretical background addresses the main concept directly related to the study’s focus: teachers’ agency and HL teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and knowledge.

3.1. Teachers’ Agency

Teachers’ agency has gained prominence in literature (e.g., Biesta et al. 2015; Cong-Lem 2021; Leijen et al. 2020). The most prominent approach to focus on teachers’ agency is an ecological view as an outcome of “the interplay of individual efforts, available resources and contextual and structural factors” (Biesta and Tedder 2007, p. 137). It defines teacher agency as actions (i.e., “something that people do”; Biesta et al. 2015, emphasis in original). Regarding classroom practice, teachers are the ultimate decision-makers; everything they do is filtered through their prior experiences and knowledge, in addition to their beliefs (Lyster and Tedick 2014). Hence, teaching is an incredibly personal enterprise. Moreover, Emirbayer and Mische (1998) defined teachers’ agency as their capacity to critically shape their own responsiveness to problematic situations. Bandura (2008) broadened this premise by stressing that teachers’ agency is not only limited to their intentions to influence reality but also demands the ability of teachers’ functioning to translate vision into reality and to act upon those intentions to create a change in the system hitherto. Constant searching for how good teacher agency can be achieved is important as the enhancement of teacher agency since it is “the only sustainable way towards the maintenance of everything that is good in education and the improvement of that which needs improvement” (Priestley et al. 2013, p. 149).

Attitudes, beliefs and knowledge (hereafter ABK) are essential facets of teachers’ agency (Biesta et al. 2015; Emirbayer and Mische 1998). A recent comprehensive overview of the research on teachers’ agency proposes that teachers’ ABK “significantly mediate the capacity to realise their agency” in classroom actions and influence the pedagogical approach (Cong-Lem 2020, p. 726).

Attitudes as a concept “come to sociolinguistics from social psychology” (Albury 2020, p. 368) and are defined as a “psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor” (Eagly and Chaiken 1993, p. 1). Thus, attitudes are subjective. They may not be verbalised until someone actually asks, nor may they be immediately available for common attention. They may be formed from random experience or be the product of deliberate thought. They may or may not obey cultural or group norms. Language attitudes refer to language policy (Baker 2006). More specifically, there is an implicit or explicit assumption that language attitudes can or should change language policy (Baker 1992, p. 97). Thus, in the context of our study, new attitudes towards the Circassian language maintenance in its written form are influenced by community leaders’ rethinking of the language policy at schools or language education policy (Isleem 2019). Language policy, as defined by Shohamy (2008), focuses on decisions about how languages are used across various domains, particularly in formal education systems (Shohamy 2008). Language education policy involves managing language use in educational settings through explicit or implicit policies (Spolsky 2017). This policy is also reflected in the curricula of educational institutions (Shohamy 2008).

Peacock’s (2001) definition of beliefs revolves around individuals’ psychological points of view concerning their environment. These can be subjective, i.e., they can vary from one individual to another, depending on one’s judgment of their surroundings or a specific situation. Teachers’ beliefs about language are a core component of language education policy and are likely to be enacted in teachers’ classroom language practices (Mary and Young 2020).

Teachers’ knowledge refers to their past experiences, combined with present and future plans that construct their knowledge (Emirbayer and Mische 1998). In focusing on teachers’ knowledge and HL teaching, it is crucial to refer to Carter and Darling-Hammond’s (2016) argument that they enter a classroom not only with content knowledge of their teaching subject (e.g., science, history, etc.) but also with their knowledge of their students. This includes demographic information about their students and knowledge of their personal, cultural and linguistic characteristics (Carter and Darling-Hammond 2016). Teachers should be aware of the individual strengths and weaknesses of their learners in order to provide them with optimal opportunities to learn and succeed and to optimise students’ engagement in this language learning. Specifically, since the Circassian language literacy teaching follows from students’ previous exposure to literacy in Hebrew, Arabic and English, the teacher must be aware of each student’s proficiency in their other languages. Drawing on this information, the Circassian language teacher may address challenges or facilitate Circassian literacy acquisition. This holistic approach recognises the interconnectedness of language proficiency and cultural identity, ensuring a more comprehensive and effective educational experience (Leeman et al. 2011).

3.2. Heritage Language Teachers’ Attitudes, Beliefs and Knowledge

Previous research showed that HL teachers might be motivated to teach HL “in response to a sense that they (the students) were losing their culture” (Yamauchi et al. 2000). Thus, in the study of the Hawaiian language teachers believed that teaching this HL is “a part of a process of regaining knowledge about their culture and establishing their identity as Hawaiians” in the Hawaiian Islands (Yamauchi et al. 2000). The teachers believed they fulfil an important role in the Hawaiian language in the name of endangered language preservation and highlighted their commitment to “the future history of their language and culture” (p. 399). In another study by Hsu-Pai Wu (2011), within the context of Sunday HL Chinese school in the US, the HL teachers expressed their concerns about a lack of appropriate teaching materials and a need to create these materials by rethinking the traditional Chinese homeland textbooks within the context of a bilingual English—Chinese speaking community. They believed that the textbooks needed to include multicultural literacy materials.

Another concern was related to students’ engagement in HL learning since most parents forced them to attend this supplementary framework. As a result, the students related to the aforementioned lessons as a kind of punishment.

Meaning is constructed through context and interaction, and when teachers and students share common contexts, mutual understanding is fostered (Gilbert and Yerrick 2001). However, due to the often marginalised position of HLs (e.g., Ortega 2019), it is exceedingly challenging for HL teachers to establish a significant role in its maintenance. Consequently, creating a positive learning environment becomes an uphill battle for them (Gilbert and Yerrick 2001).

3.3. Heritage Language Teachers’ Strategies

These are the specific methods and techniques that educators use to facilitate the learning and retention of a HL by students who have familial or ancestral ties to that language. These strategies are designed to address the unique needs of HL learners, who often have different linguistic and cultural experiences than traditional second language learners (e.g., Kagan and Dillon 2001).

The research shows that HL teachers use strategies such as using authentic materials from the heritage culture to provide real-world language exposure. For example, Kagan and Dillon (2001) highlighted the use of such materials as newspapers and films in the context of teaching Russian to heritage learners. In addition, it was found that applying culturally relevant pedagogy and integrating students’ cultural backgrounds into the curriculum make learning more meaningful and engaging. For example, a teacher might incorporate traditional stories, holidays and cultural practices into lessons, allowing students to explore their heritage through language activities that reflect their cultural experiences (Ladson-Billings 1995). Finally, recent research shows that HL teachers apply pedagogical translanguaging as a theoretical and instructional approach that enhances language and content skills in school contexts by utilizing the learner’s entire linguistic abilities (Garcia and Li 2014). It prioritises the learner’s languages and promotes metalinguistic awareness by blurring language boundaries during language and content learning (Cenoz and Gorter 2021).

This study explores the HL teacher’s agency enactment in the Circassian literacy learning classroom. The study explored the following research questions:

• What is the Circassian language teacher’s ABK as examined through an interview and classroom observations?
• What classroom strategies does the teacher employ to engage students in HL literacy learning?

4. Method

4.1. Research Design

We conducted a three-month-long mini-ethnographic study. In general, ethnography is aimed at exploring the cultural interactions in the lives of a community (Ejimabo 2015). Mini-ethnography was chosen because this research design was more feasible and less time and finances-consuming (Fusch et al. 2017).

4.2. Participants

Teacher—The teacher of Circassian, Lana (a pseudonym), is the lead teacher and the developer of the Circassian Language Literacy program addressed above. Lana, who was on sabbatical during the research period, volunteered graciously to teach the participants at her study centre “Nal” (i.e., “treasure” in Circassian). The study centre caters to both children and adults in small groups, with a plethora of teachers offering tutoring services within their respective areas of expertise. Lana teaches mathematics, Arabic and Circassian literacy at “Nal”. The vision behind the study centre is to promote in any possible way any Circassians who might need help with their studies. It is worthwhile noting that Lana lived in the Caucasus for four years when she was a teenager and studied in a special advanced track for language, literature, grammar and history in Circassian.

Students—Six fifth grade Circassian-speaking students, three girls and three boys (all participants were given pseudonyms). All the students were in the same class with Lana in fourth grade, and this year, they are being taught by a substitute teacher at school. The selected students expressed their consent, willingness and interest in participating in the study.

4.3. Procedure

The study was conducted from October to December 2022. During the first stage, the teacher was once interviewed (approximately 90 min) in Circassian; then, seven lesson observations were conducted (each lesson lasting 45 min).

4.4. Tools and Data Collection

Ethnographic tools such as observations, researcher journals and interviews (Fusch et al. 2017) were used in this research. To reduce observer or interviewer bias and enhance the credibility of the data interpretation, methodological triangulation (Shenton 2004) was applied. Further elaboration regarding the tools used will be documented in the following paragraphs.

Semi-structured interview with the teacher: Generally, semi-structured interviews are an efficient tool for engaging participants in conversation and eliciting their understanding and interpretation of a topic (Peeves et al. 2013). The aim of the semi-structured interview with the teacher was to obtain data on the teacher’s ABK as essential components of teachers’ agency as well as the teacher’s self-report regarding the target children’s HL literacy development (see the interview guide in Appendix A).

Observations: The observations were conducted in two stages. First, two observation sessions were conducted to gain the students’ trust and to form a relationship that would facilitate the researcher’s observation (Punch 2002). The following five observations were aimed at observing children–teacher strategies aimed at engaging the students in Circassian literacy learning. While the first researcher was responsible for the study design, procedure and reevaluation of the data analysis, the second researcher acted as a silent observer, and the observations were both audio and video recorded. Research conclusions prove more credible if they result from repeated observations suggesting similar patterns of findings (e.g., Lincoln and Guba 1985; Shenton 2004). Continued engagement in data collection is the investment of a satisfactory amount of time in the research setting (Shenton 2004). Determining how much time is adequate depends upon the setting. Thus, the amount of time can be defined by ensuring that certain purposes are achieved (Lincoln and Guba 1985). These purposes consist of (a) studying and understanding the culture, (b) testing for misinformation presented by the researcher or the respondents, (c) building trust and rapport with informants and (d) recognizing those characteristics and elements in the situation that are most relevant to the problem or issue being investigated. Hence, we determined the number of observations according to the needs, the research questions and issues that arose while conducting this study until all purposes were achieved (Emerson et al. 2011).

Researcher Journal: Researcher journals are critical in building the study’s archive (Blommaert and Jie 2020). The second researcher maintained them throughout the fieldwork, during the interviews, observations and conversations with the children about their drawings. We noted every relevant detail to create a repository of knowledge to draw upon when analysing data.

4.5. Data Analysis

In analysing the data extracted from the classroom observations and researcher journal, we focused on the characteristics of teacher-student agentic interactions and her strategies to engage students in HL literacy learning. Then, we analysed data gathered from the interviews with the teacher. This process is explained below in detail.

As expressed in her interview and observed behavior, the analysis of the teacher’s ABK and classroom strategies drew on stages of thematic analysis elaborated by Braun and Clarke (2006). First, the data were recorded and transcribed. While transcribing the data, we focused on two aspects: the actual words uttered by the teacher and how the words were enunciated, such as accentuation and tone of voice. Second, drawing on the theoretical background and research questions, we employed a theoretical thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke 2006). The analysis included the following phases: familiarisation with the data through reading and transcribing, generating initial codes, searching for themes while collating codes into potential themes and gathering information relevant to each one, reviewing themes, and defining and naming them. Concerning the teacher’s ABK, the following themes were identified: (1) attitudes and beliefs and (2) knowledge, including (a) expertise in the Heritage language, (b) a deep understanding of heritage language learners, (c) multilingual competence and (d) continuous learning and growth.

Regarding the way the teacher engaged the students with HL literacy learning, the following themes were identified: (1) creating a positive and inclusive learning environment (i.e., respect and encouragement), (2) cultural and religious relevance and pride, (3) the implementation of translanguaging pedagogy and (4) the use of storytelling to teach the HL.

4.6. Ethical Considerations

The research considered ethical requirements, such as gaining the necessary institutional approvals. Furthermore, this study was particularly notable for the need to negotiate both teachers’ and students’ parents’ consent to participate, respect participant privacy and confidentiality alongside protection of their rights and render due sensitivity to their identities, languages and cultural context.

5. Findings and Discussion

5.1. Attitudes, Beliefs and Knowledge (ABK)

This section presents the findings based on data gathered from an interview with the teacher, classroom observations and the researcher’s journal, focusing on the two research questions. Firstly, the study addressed the characteristics of the Circassian language teacher’s agency, expressed in her ABK and classroom strategies. Regarding attitudes and beliefs, the HL teacher exhibited expertise in the Circassian language and its authentic use, cultural and religious competence, adaptability and flexibility. In the interview, she explained she had been adapting the program until it was satisfactory: “I have been working as a teacher for 19 years, during which I have been focusing for seven years on this program for teaching Circassian in the village”.

She also encouraged children’s agency and autonomy, provided individualised support, integrated technology and engaged in reflective practice. The teacher held positive attitudes and beliefs about the value and importance of the Circassian language, viewing HL learning as a means of preserving cultural identity. In the interview, Lana described how she thinks Circassian should be loved and studied to strengthen and complete one’s identity: “Just as you light the fireplace in the winter and leave it on a small fire so that it continues to burn and warm the surroundings for a long time, so the love for our language should always be burning in us and warming our hearts”.

Lana conveyed enthusiasm and passion for the language and culture to her students, as evidenced by her statement during the interview: “I acknowledge at the beginning of 5th grade that this is their first year in Circassian literacy and yet tell them that a miracle will happen, and everyone will be leaving as readers”. She motivated the students from the beginning by showing them that they already knew at least 7 letters out of a total of 67 Circassian letters from English. That is because there is an overlapping in orthographic and phonological representation of the letters A, C, M, S, K, T and O (capitals and small letters often look the same and are distinguished by their size).

The teacher believed that a student-centred approach placing learners at the centre of the learning process was crucial for teaching languages, especially HLs. As was observed, the teacher valued and respected students’ prior knowledge, experiences and individual needs and told them that everyone would do their best to progress from the level at which they had begun. Lana made sure she paid attention to each one’s work. Indeed, the observations revealed that the teacher created an environment where students felt safe to take risks and actively participate in their learning. She achieved this mainly by constantly encouraging them; for example, when a student claimed he did not know how to read Circassian at all but could read an easy reading word with similar English letters (like CAKO; i.e., jacket), she exclaimed:

Hey! Didn’t you say you didn’t know how to read?! You fooled me! You do know how to read! And you do it very well!

This successful reading and personalised positive reaction were what the child needed to be encouraged and progress in learning the HL.

She patiently adapted her instructional strategies to meet her students’ diverse needs and heritage language proficiency levels, employing various teaching strategies discussed below to cater to multiple learning styles.

Regarding knowledge, the HL teacher demonstrated expertise in the HL, knowledge of the heritage language culture and religion and multilingual abilities. During our observations, she remained calm and patient, even in the face of occasional disturbances and reluctance displayed by some children. The HL teacher’s expertise in the Circassian language was evident, as she had a deep understanding of its grammar, vocabulary, cultural nuances and socio-linguistic aspects. In the interview, Lana explained: “In the school where I studied in the Caucasus for four years, I was in a special advanced track that taught language, literature, grammar and history in Circassian”.

Lana was aware of the importance of her own continuous learning and professional growth, seeking opportunities for professional development and staying updated with current research and best practices in HL teaching. She expressed her desire to continue her academic studies to assist Circassian studies in Israel to promote language education policy in her multilingual community:

Every language needs a teaching policy, but there is not one at the moment. This is one of the changes I want to make during my Ph.D. studies in the future, which will involve developing a policy for each language. At the moment, there is a mixture of languages in all subjects; for example, the Hebrew teacher speaks Circassian, the Arabic teacher speaks Hebrew, and so on. The teachers also do not know what is expected of them because there is no policy.

Thus, the teacher viewed herself as a language policymaker. As the micro-level of language education policy refers to local agents who enact their agency “in language work and establish processes through which perceived local language needs” (Liddicoat and Taylor-Leech 2014, p. 237), we can define Lana as an “agent of change” (Priestley et al. 2013, p. 187) because the teacher took a personal responsibility to be an active agent within the maintenance process of the HL.

As a part of her professional development, the teacher regularly reflected on her instructional strategies, classroom interactions and student outcomes, seeking feedback to make necessary adjustments. In the interview conducted with Lana, she stated:

I don’t spare anything from them; we talk, read texts, learn about our history so that they learn about their identity and know their origin and uniqueness, but I do this with different and fun teaching methods just to enable them first to “fall in love” with their mother tongue. Over time, I developed innovative teaching methods, and I study them all the time. We actually received the divisional education award for implementing innovative methods in teaching, such as play, exploration and movement. Everything that was brought to the division had been implemented in my classrooms, and I demonstrated these methods—and Circassian was not left behind at all. On the contrary, they take me as an example for English teachers in Israel to apply these successful innovative methods in teaching foreign languages.

In summary, our findings highlight the importance of teachers’ ABK, particularly in HL education, emphasizing the significance of understanding students’ cultural backgrounds and identities for effective teaching and language maintenance efforts.

5.2. Enactment of the Teacher’s Agency in Classroom Strategies

Our second question explains how the teacher engaged students in their HL learning in an agentic deliverable way. In this study, the HL teacher utilised four key strategies to enact her agency in the heritage language classroom: (1) creating a positive and inclusive learning environment, (2) highlighting cultural and religious relevance and pride, (3) implementing translanguaging pedagogy and (4) using storytelling to teach the HL. These strategies fostered motivation in the young HL learners and helped them develop a deeper connection with their language, culture, religion and identity.

5.2.1. Creating a Positive and Inclusive Learning Environment

Lana encouraged an atmosphere of respect where all students’ backgrounds, experiences and perspectives were valued. She emphasised the importance of appreciating and celebrating diversity, including different dialects or variations of Circassian worldwide. Lana also promoted an understanding that each student’s contribution to the language maintenance process is valuable. In the first observed lesson, she handed out little wooden pieces and asked them if they could guess what they were. The students guessed things like a penguin, a pencil and a ghost. Finally, one student correctly guessed that it was a broken Circassian instrument. Lana explained:

This is the Circassian musical instrument called “pkhachich”. It can make music only if you put it together and tie the head with a big, strong knot. These pieces represent us, the Circassian people, who still speak the Circassian language. If we do not take care of it properly by uniting, we will break apart more and more and become dispersed. That is how our people got scattered around the world, and that is why our language is in danger of extinction. We each have a responsibility to do our parts to save it.

Another example of class observation that illustrates the sense of identity and belonging to the community is when the teacher uses an associative mediator,2 a mini figure of an animal, to connect the abstract concept of language literacy to make it tangible. The students were asked to protect and attend to the mini figure by speaking to it and playing with it. They were told to bring it back the next week, safe and sound. Later, they discussed the concept of constantly watching over your language to keep it from any harm, i.e., extinction.

5.2.2. Cultural and Religious Relevance and Pride

The HL teacher emphasised the cultural and religious significance of the Circassian language, using it as a tool to shape the identity of younger generations and foster a sense of belonging. She incorporated culturally and religiously relevant materials, such as literature, music, art and traditions, to reflect the ethnic and cultural treasures of the Circassian community. For instance, in the first lesson, she referred to the Circassian dance and music that characterises the Circassian people and used it to add humor and fun to her lesson:

In every lesson, we will put one piece [the parts of the musical instrument that had fallen apart] into the rope, and in the last lesson, we will tie them all together. Then, we will put on Adiga [Circassian] music and play the instrument while dancing “wei wei wei” [the traditional dance].

Lana made connections between culture and religion, highlighting the value of learning the Circassian language alongside religious teachings. For example, she told the students that learning their mother tongue represents “a good deed”: “Fridays, like today, are blessed days as you all know, and it is “psapa” (=“reward, or has good value in” in Circassian) to learn about the religion, read the Quran and also learn your “bza” (=mother tongue)”.

By teaching about the history, traditions and values associated with the Circassian language and culture, Lana aimed to instill a sense of cultural awareness and pride in her students. The teacher emphasised the importance of preserving the heritage language and its role in maintaining customs, values and identity. Through these efforts, Lana sought to strengthen her students’ sense of being proud Circassians who are connected to their religion, culture and language and even, in some way, to the homeland. She told them many stories, some of which were about herself when she was a little girl. In one instance, she told the story about her arrival at the village in the Caucasus to which her family immigrated:

Right upon our arrival, we felt like home. You know how when we travel somewhere here and then come home to Kfar-Kama [the Circassian village in Israel]. You know how relieved and good you feel? That was the feeling we experienced there too—“home”.

5.2.3. Implementing Pedagogical Translanguaging

This strategy involved using cross-linguistic approaches to enhance language and content skills by utilizing all of the learner’s linguistic abilities. Lana encouraged the use of Circassian alongside other languages that students knew, promoting cross-linguistic awareness of their entire linguistic repertoire. In the interview, Lana made clear that these lessons are always pre-planned:

I even explain to them at the beginning of the year that this is their first year in Circassian literacy and that today a miracle will happen, and everyone will be leaving as “readers”! I excite them, and I show them that they know some of the letters already, which are known in English and sometimes Hebrew. I explain to them that in the 5th grade, they are already proficient language learners, and that is how I encourage them from the beginning. For example, I write the letters A, M, S, K, T and O [the capital letters similar in Latin and Cyrillic alphabets], on the board and show them that they already know something about the [written Circassian] language. Then, I build words from them in Circassian, and they read confidently, like the word: coat/SAKO/[in Circassian].

By engaging in translanguaging practices, students became more aware of the language patterns, vocabulary and grammar in Circassian and other languages they knew. Further, one of the students proudly said about being different but unique: “We mix other languages with Adighabza (the Circassian language), and we understand each other, but strangers would never understand us, and I love that so much about being a Circassian”.

5.2.4. Using Storytelling to Teach the Heritage Language

This strategy was a powerful tool to engage students in meaningful and enjoyable ways. The teacher selected traditional Circassian folktales, legends and historical narratives that were both engaging and representative of Circassian culture. Lana has a collection of stories that she repeatedly uses in her HL classes, such as “The Old Man and the Giant”, “Satanay’s Rock”, “The King’s Son, The Cook’s Son, and the Servant’s Son”, “The Brave Son”, “Who’s the Biggest of Them All?” and “The Salt-House and the Dirt-House” (see Appendix B). These stories not only entertained but also provided insights into Circassian society’s values, beliefs and history. She captured the students’ attention by using expressive gestures, voice modulation, and props to bring the stories to life. She encouraged active participation by asking questions, inviting discussions and promoting critical thinking about the stories.

These strategies facilitated a unique relationship between the HL teacher and her students, characterised by a blend of roles, responsibilities and dynamics. The teacher’s agency as a teacher was instrumental in the ongoing pursuit of language maintenance within the Circassian community, thus empowering students to connect with their heritage language and culture on a deeper level.

6. Conclusions

This study enriches the theoretical landscape by providing a more comprehensive understanding of how HL teachers’ agency functions in the context of multilingual education within HL maintenance efforts. The research provides insights into how teachers can navigate linguistic diversity, particularly in the context of preserving the endangered language, Circassian. The study involved six fifth graders learning four languages simultaneously, including Circassian, which is at risk of extinction. The Circassian HL maintenance program aims to foster active engagement with the Circassian language in various methods. The study emphasises the importance of agentic teachers for successful language maintenance. Ultimately, we can assume that, by employing the appropriate agentic teachers and pairing them with students who are open to learning, excellent results may occur, and a minority language can survive.

The conclusions suggest that schools should treat students’ linguistic and literacy backgrounds as valuable resources, especially when teaching heritage languages like Circassian. By recognizing and building upon students’ existing language skills, educators can create a supportive learning environment for acquiring a new literacy system, such as Circassian. This approach aligns with the trend in language education that values students’ multilingual and multicultural experiences.

Moreover, a clear language policy at schools, coupled with professional development for teachers to enhance cross-linguistic awareness, can foster an inclusive and effective educational environment. This policy should encompass the goals, strategies and expectations for language education and involve input from teachers, parents and community members. It should support the maintenance and development of students’ home languages, including Circassian, and be adaptable to diverse needs.

Professional development for teachers, overseen by school administrators or curriculum coordinators, should focus on enhancing language education knowledge and skills, collaboration with colleagues, participation in professional networks and engagement in reflective practice. Teachers should also stay updated with current research in language education.

Finally, developing cross-linguistic awareness in students has long-term benefits, helping them appreciate their multilingual abilities and contributing to a positive language learning experience. This perspective is particularly relevant in the context of multilingualism, highlighting both its advantages and challenges.

7. Limitations

The study had several limitations that require acknowledgement. Firstly, as the second researcher was a member of the Circassian community, there was a possibility of bias in data collection and analysis. To mitigate this, the first researcher, proficient in ethnographic methodology, independently analysed the data to enhance credibility. Secondly, the study’s reliance on a relatively small number of observation sessions could be seen as a limitation. However, the observed lessons achieved data saturation, one of the critical qualitative research criteria. While the study focuses on the HL teacher’s agency and strategies in the Circassian language maintenance process, further research is needed to take an ecological approach and to investigate students’ agency in interaction with the teacher’s efforts. Moreover, it is important to explore the longitudinal impact of the teacher’s language education policymaking in the Circassian community.