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Paradoxes of Language Policy in Morocco: Deconstructing the Ideology of Language Alternation and the Resurgence of French in STEM Instruction
Negative Indefinite Constructions in Bantu: ‘Nobody’
The Sino-Vietnamese Negative Prefixes bất, vô, phi and Their Coexistence with Sentential Negators: A Synchronic and Diachronic Analysis
The Link Between Perception and Production in the Laryngeal Processes of Multilingual Speakers

Journal Description

Languages

Languages is an international, multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed, open access journal on interdisciplinary studies of languages published monthly online by MDPI. The European Society for Transcultural and Interdisciplinary Dialogue (ESTIDIA) is affiliated with Languages and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), ERIH Plus, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Linguistics) / CiteScore - Q1 (Language and Linguistics)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 56.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 10.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 1.2 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 1.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-471X

Latest Articles

28 pages, 1965 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb and Its Nominal Analogies

by Petr Biskup

Languages 2025, 10(11), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10110274 (registering DOI) - 29 Oct 2025

It has been argued that there are analogies between the nominal domain and the verbal domain in natural languages. Most approaches dealing with these analogies in Slavic languages investigate them from the semantic and aspectual points of view. In contrast to them, this [...] Read more.

It has been argued that there are analogies between the nominal domain and the verbal domain in natural languages. Most approaches dealing with these analogies in Slavic languages investigate them from the semantic and aspectual points of view. In contrast to them, this article focuses on morphosyntactic parallels. It investigates all five aspectual markers of verbal predicates: prefixes, the secondary imperfective, the semelfactive morpheme, the iterative -a and the habitual suffix. The analysis follows the Distributed Morphology framework. This article addresses the question of which morphosyntactic correspondences these aspectual markers have in the nominal domain. It is argued that the iterative secondary imperfective is a parallel of the nominal number projection and that the habitual morpheme in North Slavic languages is the counterpart of the nominal determiner. Verbal prefixes are analogous to nominal classifiers, and in addition, lexical prefixes parallel the nominal complement, and superlexical prefixes correspond to adjectival modifiers of the nominal domain. The internal iterative -a, as a spell-out of the verbal categorizing head, is analogous to the categorizing head of nouns. Thus, it is argued that Slavic also has event-internal and event-external pluractional markers. The semelfactive morpheme parallels the singulative (diminutive) marker of the nominal domain, and we argue that these markers adjoin to the root before the categorizing head. This argues against the standard claim that semelfactives are derived from iteratives (multiplicatives). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb: Analogies in Different Languages and Other Grammatical Domains)

29 pages, 1961 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developing an AI-Powered Pronunciation Application to Improve English Pronunciation of Thai ESP Learners

by Jiraporn Lao-un and Dararat Khampusaen

Languages 2025, 10(11), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10110273 - 28 Oct 2025

This study examined the effects of using specially designed AI-mediated pronunciation application in enhancing the production of English fricative consonants among Thai English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners. The research utilized a quasi-experimental design involving intact classes of 74 undergraduate students majoring in [...] Read more.

This study examined the effects of using specially designed AI-mediated pronunciation application in enhancing the production of English fricative consonants among Thai English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners. The research utilized a quasi-experimental design involving intact classes of 74 undergraduate students majoring in Thai Dance and Music Education, divided into control (N = 38) and experimental (N = 36) groups. Grounded in Skill Acquisition Theory, the experimental group received pronunciation training via a custom-designed AI application leveraging automatic speech recognition (ASR), offering ESP contextualized practices, real-time, and individualized feedback. In contrast, the control group underwent traditional teacher-led articulatory and teacher-assisted feedback. Pre- and post-test evaluations measured pronunciation for nine target fricatives in ESP-relevant contexts. The statistical analyses revealed significant improvements in both groups, with the AI-mediated group demonstrating substantially greater gains, particularly on challenging sounds absent in Thai, such as /θ/, /ð/, /z/, /ʃ/, and /h/. The findings underscore the potential of AI-driven interventions to address language-specific phonological challenges through personalized, immediate feedback and adaptive practices. The study provides empirical evidence for integrating advanced technology into ESP pronunciation pedagogy, informing future curriculum design for EFL contexts. Implications for theory, practice, and future research are discussed, emphasizing tailored technological solutions for language learners with specific phonological profiles. Full article

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19 pages, 653 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parallels Between Second Language Mastery and Musical Proficiency: Individual Differences in Auditory Phonological Pattern Recognition

by Markus Christiner and Christine Groß

Languages 2025, 10(11), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10110272 - 27 Oct 2025

Research has shown that language ability can vary enormously depending on variables such as musical ability, musical training, and second and/or foreign language experience. In this study, we simulated initial foreign language learning conditions in which learners must recognize and match unfamiliar language [...] Read more.

Research has shown that language ability can vary enormously depending on variables such as musical ability, musical training, and second and/or foreign language experience. In this study, we simulated initial foreign language learning conditions in which learners must recognize and match unfamiliar language input. We recruited 500 participants with different levels of foreign language experience, different levels of musical training and different socio-economic backgrounds. Their auditory phonological pattern recognition ability, short-term memory (STM) capacity, musical ability, musical self-estimation, educational status, and socio-economic status (SES) were assessed. Both overall and group-specific analyses were conducted to investigate the impact of these variables. For the group-specific analysis, participants were assigned to four groups based on the presence or absence of musical training and extensive foreign language experience. For the overall analysis, regression models were applied to the entire sample to examine the combined effects of all variables. Group-specific analyses revealed that both musical training and extensive foreign language experience contributed to individual differences in the ability to recognize phonological patterns in unintelligible auditory stimuli. A key finding was that musical training appeared to have a stronger influence on auditory phonological pattern recognition than extensive foreign language experience, particularly in the early stages of language learning. This suggests that musical training may exert a greater impact on initial phonetic acquisition processes than extensive foreign language proficiency, especially when the language stimuli are relatively poor in linguistic content. The overall analysis revealed that musical variables, short-term memory capacity, socioeconomic status, and educational status all contributed to individual differences in auditory phonological pattern recognition. Notably, the most significant finding of the overall analysis was the association between SES and auditory phonological pattern recognition in unfamiliar speech—a result that challenges the notion of aptitude measures as stable and environment-independent and highlights the potential influence of environmental factors on this capacity. Full article

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32 pages, 30990 KB

Open AccessArticle

When Language Maintenance Means Language Shift: Tibetan as an Heritage Language in Amdo Families in France

by Camille Simon

Languages 2025, 10(11), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10110271 - 26 Oct 2025

This paper explores the initial steps of transgenerational language change in exile by comparing the varieties of “Common” Tibetan as spoken by parents born in Amdo, Tibet, and by their teenager children, born in Tibet or in South Asia, who arrived in France [...] Read more.

This paper explores the initial steps of transgenerational language change in exile by comparing the varieties of “Common” Tibetan as spoken by parents born in Amdo, Tibet, and by their teenager children, born in Tibet or in South Asia, who arrived in France at an early age and who have spent all or most of their schooling in France. In these families, the parents speak a variety of Amdo Tibetan as their first language, which does not allow for inter-comprehension with “Common” Tibetan. They have acquired “Common” Tibetan during their stay in South Asia before they moved to France. The paper follows a descriptive approach to analyze the structural (dis)similarities between the parents’ and the children’s varieties of “Common” Tibetan. It also documents intra-generational variation (1) within the parents’ generation, where we can observe a variable extent of retention for Amdo Tibetic features, and (2) within the children’s generation, where variation is usually due more to the (often contact-induced) linguistic changes than to the retention of some of their parents’ linguistic features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Migrant to Heritage Languages: Transgenerational Language Change in Diasporic Communities)

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15 pages, 307 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluative Morphology and the Syntax of Adjectives in Italian

by Denis Delfitto and Chiara Melloni

Languages 2025, 10(11), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10110270 - 24 Oct 2025

This paper addresses a well-known puzzle at the intersection of morphology and syntax: the categorical exclusion of adjectives modified by evaluative morphology from prenominal position in Italian. While Italian allows many adjectives to occur both pre- and postnominally, adjectives like piccolino, ‘little-dim’, [...] Read more.

This paper addresses a well-known puzzle at the intersection of morphology and syntax: the categorical exclusion of adjectives modified by evaluative morphology from prenominal position in Italian. While Italian allows many adjectives to occur both pre- and postnominally, adjectives like piccolino, ‘little-dim’, are strictly postnominal (cane piccolino, lit. ‘dog little-dim’ vs. *piccolino cane, ‘little-dim dog’), a distribution not fully explained by their proposed predicative or intersective nature. Drawing on degree semantics and trope theory, we argue that this constraint arises from an incompatibility between two distinct interpretive strategies. Prenominal adjectives undergo a syntactically driven semantic shift, whereby the noun triggers a trope-based interpretation of the adjective, redefining the meaning of the A-N complex. In contrast, evaluative morphology operates through a pragmatically driven strategy, contributing speaker-oriented, context-sensitive meaning to the adjective. Crucially, these two strategies are mutually exclusive: an adjective modified by evaluative morphology has already undergone pragmatic reinterpretation and cannot simultaneously participate in the compositional syntactic process required for prenominal placement. This explains why adjectives with evaluative suffixes are excluded from prenominal contexts, despite often yielding intersective interpretations postnominally. Our proposal accounts for this distributional asymmetry without resorting to stipulations and suggests that certain interpretive procedures are not recursively applicable across syntax and pragmatics. Ultimately, this study sheds new light on a principled interface constraint linking syntactic distribution, morphological derivation and pragmatic interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morpho(phono)logy/Syntax Interface)

19 pages, 562 KB

Open AccessArticle

Constructive Dynamic Syntax

by Stergios Chatzikyriakidis

Languages 2025, 10(11), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10110269 - 23 Oct 2025

This paper explores the integration of constructive type theory in the tradition of Martin Löf into Dynamic Syntax. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Dynamic Syntax)

20 pages, 1691 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards an Integrative Approach to EFL and ESL: Comparing English in Cyprus and Greece

by Sarah Buschfeld

Languages 2025, 10(11), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10110268 - 23 Oct 2025

As has repeatedly been pointed out in recent years, the categories ESL/Outer Circle and EFL/Expanding Circle should not be considered as clear-cut as traditionally assumed. Consequently, recent research has made first attempts for an integrative approach to Englishes traditionally ascribed to one of [...] Read more.

As has repeatedly been pointed out in recent years, the categories ESL/Outer Circle and EFL/Expanding Circle should not be considered as clear-cut as traditionally assumed. Consequently, recent research has made first attempts for an integrative approach to Englishes traditionally ascribed to one of these categories. The paper at hand introduces the Extra- and Intra-territorial Forces Model (EIF Model) as a successful attempt to bridge the traditional gap between the two categories and shows how the model works in practice by implementation to the cases of Greece and Cyprus. These two countries are particularly interesting for the application of this framework since their linguistic ecologies, with Greek and English in contact, are essentially similar. From a historical perspective, however, they are fundamentally different; Cyprus is a former colony of the British Empire, whereas Greece has never experienced British colonization. Therefore, the two countries offer the perfect basis for putting the traditional categories of EFL and ESL to the test and for illustrating how more recent models of World Englishes, such as the EIF Model, might offer more flexible theoretical alternatives to earlier, often more rigid theoretical approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sociolinguistic Variation and Change: Focus on English as a Second and Foreign Language)

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6 pages, 210 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction: Perception and Processing of Address Terms

by Helen de Hoop and Gert-Jan Schoenmakers

Languages 2025, 10(10), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100267 - 17 Oct 2025

People can address each other in many ways, and this can be studied in many ways too [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perception and Processing of Address Terms)

25 pages, 360 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functions of Discourse Markers in Nonnative English Speech: The Case of Arab English Speakers

by Sharif Alghazo, Nour Alkhatib, Ghaleb Rababáh and Muath Algazo

Languages 2025, 10(10), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100266 - 15 Oct 2025

This study examines the use and functions of discourse markers (DMs) in nonnative English speech produced by Arab English speakers. Four DMs (and, but, so, y’know) are analysed based on two theoretical frameworks: Schiffrin’s (1987) framework of functions [...] Read more.

This study examines the use and functions of discourse markers (DMs) in nonnative English speech produced by Arab English speakers. Four DMs (and, but, so, y’know) are analysed based on two theoretical frameworks: Schiffrin’s (1987) framework of functions of DMs and Schourup’s (1999) characterisation of DMs. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 Arab English speakers. The findings show clear patterns in the participants’ use of DMs. The marker and is mainly used for its ideational function, that is, for connecting ideas, events, and positions to keep the discourse together, while pragmatic functions, such as continuing an action or turn organisation, are less represented. But is mainly used for its ideational function, indicating contrastive ideas; less frequently, it is used for such pragmatic functions as returning to a topic, making disclaimers, reclaims, or showing functional contrasts. In contrast, so demonstrates a broader range of functions; while it occasionally marks results at the ideational level, it is extensively utilised pragmatically for marking claims, compliance, requests, and topic transitions, as well as managing turn initiation and adjacency pairs. y’know is used for such pragmatic functions as organising shared knowledge, signalling significant information or disapproval in stories, and appealing. Overall, the findings in the study suggest that, in the narrative register, when using DMs, Arab English speakers rely chiefly on their ideational functions. In contrast, their pragmatic functions are used much less, except for so and y’know, which also show more diversified functions. Full article

15 pages, 272 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Dialectal Dynamics—An Introduction

by Alfred Lameli, Simonetta Montemagni and John Nerbonne

Languages 2025, 10(10), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100265 - 15 Oct 2025

The study of dialects leads very naturally to the study of their geographic distribution and the nature of the distribution, e.g., by examining whether the distribution is based simply on geographic distance or on relatively distinct dialect regions. Dialectal dynamics poses the further [...] Read more.

The study of dialects leads very naturally to the study of their geographic distribution and the nature of the distribution, e.g., by examining whether the distribution is based simply on geographic distance or on relatively distinct dialect regions. Dialectal dynamics poses the further question of why the distribution takes the form it does. Does variation arise through migration, i.e., due to the relative lack of communication among people who live far from one another? Sociolinguists have shown convincingly that variation is often employed to indicate identification with others, leading to the adoption of speech habits and changes in the distribution of variation. Purely linguistic processes may push some varieties toward change while others are more resistant, and contact with other languages and dialects, including particularly standard languages, almost inevitably results in changes. This volume examines studies in the area of dialectal dynamics, including studies focused on methods that promise to illuminate this complex field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialectal Dynamics)

25 pages, 548 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond the Classroom Walls: Study Abroad and the Acquisition of Sociostylistic Variation in L2 French

by Kristen Kennedy Terry

Languages 2025, 10(10), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100264 - 14 Oct 2025

This longitudinal study examines the acquisition of target-like patterns of phonological variation by 17 second language (L2) French learners during a semester or year of study abroad (SA) in France. In this study, speech data from sociolinguistic interviews conducted before, during, and after [...] Read more.

This longitudinal study examines the acquisition of target-like patterns of phonological variation by 17 second language (L2) French learners during a semester or year of study abroad (SA) in France. In this study, speech data from sociolinguistic interviews conducted before, during, and after the SA period provide evidence for the emergent acquisition of a phonological variable showing sociostylistic variation in first language (L1) speech: the reduction of word-final obstruent-liquid clusters, as in: notre maison [no tʁ(ə) mɛ ʒɔ̃] ~ [not mɛ ʒɔ̃] ‘our house’; c’est incroyable [se tɛ̃ kʁɔ ja bl(ə)] ~ [se tɛ̃ kʁɔ jab] ‘it’s incredible’. Additionally, speech data are compared and correlated with the results of a social network strength scale designed by the researcher for the SA learning context. Results suggest that sociostylistic variation patterns among learners are constrained by linguistic factors similar to those operating on L1 speech, such as lexical effects, and that time in the target language (TL) environment is a significant predictor of variation. Results also demonstrate that although social network strength is not a significant predictor of variation at a group level, speaker gender is, and learner patterns reflect the gendered speech norms of the TL community. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)

26 pages, 2644 KB

Open AccessArticle

Humor as a Structure-Creating Mechanism: A Case of Recent Diachrony in Contemporary Spanish

by Salvador Pons Bordería

Languages 2025, 10(10), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100263 - 14 Oct 2025

Despite the extensive body of research on the social aspects of humor, relatively few studies consider humor as an active element in the formation of linguistic structure (in the structuralist sense). In this regard, the present paper explores the role of humor in [...] Read more.

Despite the extensive body of research on the social aspects of humor, relatively few studies consider humor as an active element in the formation of linguistic structure (in the structuralist sense). In this regard, the present paper explores the role of humor in the diachronic evolution of qué…ni que-insubordinate structures in Contemporary Spanish and outlines a possible integration of humor into an interactive construction grammar (Croft, 2001). Full article

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5 pages, 213 KB

Open AccessReply

Further Argumentation for Conflict Adaptation Not Being Domain General: Response to Novick et al. (2025)

by Varvara Kuz, Fangzhou Cai, Keyue Chen, Jiaxin Chen, Xuzi Qi, Clement Veall, Yuanqi Zheng, Zhengping Xu and Andrea Santi

Languages 2025, 10(10), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100262 - 14 Oct 2025

We agree with the commentary that discrepant results across cross-task conflict adaptation studies are likely explained by methodological differences. Considering additional studies and paradigms, we argue that, collectively, the weight of the evidence suggests conflict adaptation is domain-specific; the exception being the visual [...] Read more.

We agree with the commentary that discrepant results across cross-task conflict adaptation studies are likely explained by methodological differences. Considering additional studies and paradigms, we argue that, collectively, the weight of the evidence suggests conflict adaptation is domain-specific; the exception being the visual world paradigm. Further argumentation is provided for why the visual world paradigm may in fact be showing domain-specific conflict adaptation within visual attentional control. The additional methodological concerns raised in the commentary about our study either do not appear consistently across all of our experiments or we provide further data or argumentation to demonstrate they are in fact not a concern. Our original article did not claim that cognitive control does not apply in language processing, but that a domain-specific account of cognitive control may be feasible and should be explored in future work. Full article

33 pages, 1363 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Cross-Language Investigation of Stimulus- and Person-Level Characteristics That Determine Phonemic Processing in Monolingual French- and German-Speaking Preschoolers

by Jessica Carolyn Weiner-Bühler, Katrin Skoruppa, Leila Teresa Schächinger Tenés, Robin Klaus Segerer and Alexander Grob

Languages 2025, 10(10), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100261 - 12 Oct 2025

Phonemic processing is largely influenced by how stimulus-specific characteristics of a language are computed, but person-level variables represent important moderators as well. The current study investigates how such characteristics, in parallel, affect receptive-level phonemic processing across the preschool age, and whether these effects [...] Read more.

Phonemic processing is largely influenced by how stimulus-specific characteristics of a language are computed, but person-level variables represent important moderators as well. The current study investigates how such characteristics, in parallel, affect receptive-level phonemic processing across the preschool age, and whether these effects are comparable across different languages. Using a child-friendly ‘odd-man-out’ discrimination task, we examined 239 monolingual German- and French-speaking preschoolers, aged three to five. Results revealed that phonotactic probability-based syllable frequency, nonword length, and mismatching nonword positioning effects explained independent variance components of phonemic processing. Age significantly affected how memory-related, but not linguistically relevant, stimulus characteristics were utilized for phonemic processing. Additionally, cross-language differences in rhythmic structure between German and French influenced which nonword segments received more attention focus. These findings provide novel insights into critical determinants of phonemic processing in preschoolers and highlight the need for further research to explore these effects over time and within varying language backgrounds. Full article

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21 pages, 1145 KB

Open AccessArticle

Learning Chinese Characters of Visual Similarity: The Effects of Presentation Style and Color Coding

by Junmin Li, Mengya Shi and Xin Wang

Languages 2025, 10(10), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100260 - 11 Oct 2025

This study examined how beginners benefit from ‘salience’ in learning two types of visually similar Chinese characters: those with identical strokes (e.g., 人 and 入) and those differing by an additional stroke (e.g., 日 and 白), while identifying the role of color coding [...] Read more.

This study examined how beginners benefit from ‘salience’ in learning two types of visually similar Chinese characters: those with identical strokes (e.g., 人 and 入) and those differing by an additional stroke (e.g., 日 and 白), while identifying the role of color coding and presentation style. A total of 183 non-tonal native speakers with no prior experience of Chinese characters participated in the study. In a 2 × 2 × 2 experimental design, the study assessed the influence of color coding (with vs. without), presentation style (single vs. paired characters), and stroke similarity (identical vs. different) on learning. Results showed (1) Characters with stroke differences were learned more easily than identical-stroke characters; (2) Simultaneous character presentation enhanced discrimination of subtle stroke differences, but (3) Color coding slowed down reaction times, suggesting visual overload. These findings demonstrate that perceptual similarity—not just complexity—impacts character learning difficulty. Pedagogically, the results support using paired character presentation while cautioning against excessive visual enhancements. The study provides empirical evidence for optimizing Chinese character instruction by balancing discriminability and cognitive load in beginning learners. Full article

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6 pages, 235 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers: An Introduction to the Special Issue

by Olga Ivanova and Óscar Loureda

Languages 2025, 10(10), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100259 - 10 Oct 2025

The number of heritage speakers is steadily increasing worldwide [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)

20 pages, 568 KB

Open AccessArticle

“I Know How to Speak Spanish My Way”: Incorporating Critically Oriented Sociolinguistic Topics in Heritage Language Classrooms

by Sara I. Roca-Ramirez

Languages 2025, 10(10), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100258 - 7 Oct 2025

This study advances Spanish Heritage Language (SHL) pedagogy by investigating the integration of Critically Oriented Sociolinguistic Topics (COST) in the heritage language curriculum. Thirteen self-identified SHL students from three courses (Intermediate, Advanced I, and Advanced II) at two universities in the Washington, D.C. [...] Read more.

This study advances Spanish Heritage Language (SHL) pedagogy by investigating the integration of Critically Oriented Sociolinguistic Topics (COST) in the heritage language curriculum. Thirteen self-identified SHL students from three courses (Intermediate, Advanced I, and Advanced II) at two universities in the Washington, D.C. metro area participated in semi-structured Zoom interviews exploring their motivations for enrolling in an SHL class, their perceptions of Spanish, and the impact of COST. Analysis identified recurring themes about underlying language ideologies and enrollment motivations, such as improving academic Spanish and grammar, career preparation, and connecting with course topics. Dominant ideologies, including essentialist, standard language, deficit, and commodification, were evident in students’ perceptions of Spanish and Latinx communities in the U.S. and abroad. Findings showed that students developed critical awareness of language variation that supported validation of their HL practices and the emergence of student agency. Some students moved from reproducing to contesting deficit and standard ideologies, asserting legitimacy for their own bilingual repertoires. These findings underscore the need for integrating COST in SHL courses to promote student agency, foster positive attitudes, and strengthen students’ linguistic confidence. Full article

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17 pages, 868 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modulation of Maximum Pitch in the Speech of Caregivers Addressing Their 18- to 24-Month-Old Children Corresponds to Objects Vertical Position

by Jessica Naomi Steil and Claudia Katrin Friedrich

Languages 2025, 10(10), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100257 - 1 Oct 2025

There are close relationships between vertical positions in space and auditory experiences of fundamental frequency (F0), which even very young children seem to use. Like adults, they associate higher or rising F0 values with upper positions in space and vice versa for lower [...] Read more.

There are close relationships between vertical positions in space and auditory experiences of fundamental frequency (F0), which even very young children seem to use. Like adults, they associate higher or rising F0 values with upper positions in space and vice versa for lower or falling F0 values. Here, we tested whether caregivers’ speech capitalizes on these associations to guide the attention of very young children (18 to 24 months). Together with their child, caregivers saw four different objects (in the corners of a computer screen). Caregivers produced standardized sentences (e.g., “Look at the hat.”). We observed a significantly increased maximum F0 (but no differences in mean or minimum F0) at the onset of the utterance when the to be named object appeared at an upper position compared to the same object at a lower position. Furthermore, exploratory analyses of F0 dynamics of caregivers’ utterances indicated that the higher F0 maximum was part of a more prominent F0 increase for objects appearing at an upper compared to a lower position. Adults without a child present and less experience in interacting with children did not show systematic pitch modulation when addressing an imagined child in the same study set-up. Thus, caregivers appear to systematically modulate F0 dynamics to provide an effective language environment when they are interacting with their child. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)

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44 pages, 882 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Perspective on Language Shift and Language Change: Norwegian and German Heritage Varieties in North America

by Alexander K. Lykke and Maike H. Rocker

Languages 2025, 10(10), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100256 - 30 Sep 2025

This study evaluates the relationship between language shift and linguistic change in multigenerational immigrant communities, focusing on North American Norwegian (NAmNo) and German heritage varieties. The research synthesizes current findings on how language shift impacts linguistic structures in moribund heritage varieties. Methods include [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the relationship between language shift and linguistic change in multigenerational immigrant communities, focusing on North American Norwegian (NAmNo) and German heritage varieties. The research synthesizes current findings on how language shift impacts linguistic structures in moribund heritage varieties. Methods include a qualitative review of diachronic studies, comparing data from different periods to assess changes in tense morphology, language mixing, compositional definiteness, possessive placement, verb placement, argument placement, and phoneme variation. Results indicate that the last generation of heritage speakers demonstrates increased linguistic innovation and variation compared to earlier generations. Key findings show that language shift leads to different input quality and quantity, affecting grammatical stability. The study concludes that sociocultural changes, such as verticalization and domain-specific language use, significantly influence heritage language maintenance and loss. These insights contribute to understanding the dynamics of language shift and its role in heritage language change, offering valuable comparative perspectives across different immigrant communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Migrant to Heritage Languages: Transgenerational Language Change in Diasporic Communities)

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29 pages, 2669 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Has Poets’ Reading Style Changed? A Phonetic Analysis of the Effects of Historical Phases and Gender on 20th Century Spanish Poetry Reading

by Valentina Colonna

Languages 2025, 10(10), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10100255 - 30 Sep 2025

Poetry reading remains a largely underexplored area in phonetic research. While previous studies have highlighted its potential and challenges, experimental research in the Spanish context is still limited. This study aims to examine the evolution of Spanish poetry reading over time, focusing on [...] Read more.

Poetry reading remains a largely underexplored area in phonetic research. While previous studies have highlighted its potential and challenges, experimental research in the Spanish context is still limited. This study aims to examine the evolution of Spanish poetry reading over time, focusing on its main prosodic features. Applying the VIP-VSP phonetic model to 40 poetry recordings, we analyzed the organizational and prosodic indices that characterize poetry reading. Mean speech rate, plenus (the ratio of speaking time to pausing), and pitch span emerged as key parameters for capturing change. The results identified two distinct historical phases—first and second radio-television—showing significant effects on speech rate, plenus, and pitch span: speech rate and pitch span increased over time, while plenus decreased. Gender also played a key role, with female voices exhibiting significantly higher values in both pitch span and plenus. Variability and recurring strategies were observed within and across authors. This study confirms that poetry reading has evolved along a ‘stylistic-chronological’ trajectory, while also reflecting gender-based distinctions. These findings underscore the need for interdisciplinary analytical approaches and diversified classification groupings to fully capture the complexity of this mode of speech. Full article

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Special Issues

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Special Issue in Languages

A Citizen’s Perspective on Code-Switching: Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies Guest Editor: Brian Hok Shing Chan
Deadline: 30 October 2025

Special Issue in Languages

Morpho(phono)logy/Syntax Interface Guest Editors: Leonardo Maria Savoia, Rugna Giuseppe
Deadline: 1 November 2025

Special Issue in Languages

New Trends in Syntactic Islands Guest Editors: Thomas Graf, Aniello De Santo
Deadline: 7 November 2025

Special Issue in Languages

The Syntax of Child Language Guest Editor: Peng Zhou
Deadline: 30 November 2025

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