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A Unified Morphosyntactic Analysis of Reduplication as Inclusion -
Investigating Grammatical Aspect Choices in Oral Narratives of Greek Heritage Speakers: A Corpus-Based Study -
Majority Language Influence and Heritage Language Maintenance in a Small Transnational Community: Hungarian-Hebrew Families in Israel -
Grammatical Gender Retrieval: The Influence of L2 Dutch on L1 German
Journal Description
Languages
Languages
is an international, multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed, open access journal on interdisciplinary studies of languages published monthly online by MDPI. The European Society for Transcultural and Interdisciplinary Dialogue (ESTIDIA) is affiliated with Languages and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), ERIH Plus, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Linguistics) / CiteScore - Q1 (Language and Linguistics)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 55.2 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 9.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Journal Cluster of Human Thought and Cultural Expression: Culture, Histories, Humanities, Languages, Literature and Religions.
Impact Factor:
1.3 (2025);
5-Year Impact Factor:
1.3 (2025)
Latest Articles
Unearthing the Archive: Ιdeologies of Transcription and the Anagnostou–Kretschmer Dispute
Languages 2026, 11(6), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060130 (registering DOI) - 22 Jun 2026
Abstract
This study examines the linguistic landscape of northern Lesbos at the turn of the 20th century through the lens of historical sociolinguistics. The research focuses on the scientific intersection and subsequent controversy between the native scholar Spyridon Anagnostou and the renowned German linguist
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This study examines the linguistic landscape of northern Lesbos at the turn of the 20th century through the lens of historical sociolinguistics. The research focuses on the scientific intersection and subsequent controversy between the native scholar Spyridon Anagnostou and the renowned German linguist Paul Kretschmer. Methodologically, the study employs archival research, biographical analysis, and a comparative study of Anagnostou’s original manuscripts held at the Research Center for Modern Greek Dialects (KENDI) against published editions. The results include the identification of 36 unpublished fairy tales and an analysis of phonetic and morphological phenomena, such as kappacism and rare feminine endings, which are largely absent from contemporary records. Comparative analysis further reveals significant “dialectal normalization” and ideological interventions in both scholars’ transcriptions. We conclude that Anagnostou’s manuscripts serve as a vital “linguistic fossil” and a proxy for unrecorded spontaneous speech, recovering diachronic depth lost to dialect leveling. Ultimately, the study highlights the importance of marginal local scholarship in reconstructing a “language history from below” and addressing epistemic injustice and the ideology of transcriptions in the history of dialectology.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Modern Dialect of Lesbos: Selected Topics)
Open AccessArticle
Linguistic Evidence for the Borrowing and Origin of “Matchmaker” in Liangshan Yi
by
Hongdi Ding and Hui Zhang
Languages 2026, 11(6), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060129 - 18 Jun 2026
Abstract
This study uses linguistic evidence to examine the cultural dimensions of the term “matchmaker” within Liangshan Yi society, Sichuan, China. The present linguistic analysis reveals that two distinct Chinese words related to marriage were borrowed into the Liangshan Yi language, based on morphological
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This study uses linguistic evidence to examine the cultural dimensions of the term “matchmaker” within Liangshan Yi society, Sichuan, China. The present linguistic analysis reveals that two distinct Chinese words related to marriage were borrowed into the Liangshan Yi language, based on morphological analyzability, cognate comparison within Sino-Tibetan languages, and phonological and semantic adaptation. Specifically, (i) the Chinese word 伐 (fá), meaning ‘to hew, chop, or matchmake’ was borrowed as a standalone verb, phonologically adapted as ho33/fu33 depending on dialect into Liangshan Yi with the meaning ‘to marry (generally)’; and (ii) the term 伐柯 (fákē), originally meaning ‘to cut wood for an axe handle’ and later to ‘matchmaking, matchmaker,’ was borrowed into Liangshan Yi as a noun meaning ‘matchmaker’ (hɔ44ka33/fu44ka33, depending on dialect). Phonological evidence suggests these borrowings occurred during the Late Middle Chinese period, prior to the completion of labiodentalization, but after the shift of labial consonants to labiodental sounds, between the late Tang and Song dynasties (ca. 9th to 13th centuries). The lower limit is 1324 CE, when Zhōngyuán Yīnyùn was compiled. The dating of these borrowings is corroborated by our further corpus analysis of the usage of 伐柯 fákē and 伐 fá in ancient Chinese texts. This analysis reveals that while the two Chinese words originated in Shījīng (Book of Odes, 11th–7th centuries BCE), their usage frequency was extremely low in Early Middle Chinese; a resurgence subsequently occurred in Late Middle Chinese, with the highest frequency attested in the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). Moreover, a survey of additional Loloish communities shows that 伐柯 fákē serves as the common source of the borrowing for the term “matchmaker” in many Northern Loloish and some Central Loloish varieties, reflecting the influence of Chinese marital customs across a broad range of Yi communities. Although the borrowing derives from a common source, given the similar phonetic forms, the terms for “matchmaker” in these Loloish languages lack sound correspondences. This indicates that the Loloish languages had already diverged from one another by the time the borrowing took place. Finally, the linguistic evidence from the present study illuminates the historical processes that shaped marital customs among Yi ethnic societies, demonstrating that the concept of matchmaker is a recent innovation within Yi cultural practice, linguistically and culturally borrowed from Han Chinese—probably during 9th century to early 14th century—rather than being an indigenous tradition.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Languages and Their Neighbours in Southeast Asia)
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Open AccessArticle
Parental Language Attitudes Towards Their Children’s Accent: Findings from a Nationwide Survey in Australia
by
Chloé Diskin-Holdaway and Paola Escudero
Languages 2026, 11(6), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060128 - 17 Jun 2026
Abstract
Little is known about parents’ attitudes towards their children’s accent and the role they play in transmitting an accent (and attitudes about accents) to their children. Even less is known about how these perceptions and attitudes emerge and are transmitted in multilingual families.
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Little is known about parents’ attitudes towards their children’s accent and the role they play in transmitting an accent (and attitudes about accents) to their children. Even less is known about how these perceptions and attitudes emerge and are transmitted in multilingual families. We draw on an online survey of parental language attitudes in Australia (n = 267), where 45% of respondents were born overseas, and 61% reported speaking a language other than English. Parents were asked whether they think their children speak with an Australian or another accent; whether they change their accent when they speak to their children, and whether their children’s accents change when they speak to their parents as compared to other people. A total of 14% of parents reported that one or more of their children had an accent that was not Australian, with about half of these children having reportedly hybrid or mixed accents, and the other half no accent at all. Over 11% of parents reported frequently or occasionally changing their accent with their children. Of those parents, several disclosed specific strategies in changing their accents around their children, such as making a conscious effort to sound ‘clear’ or deliberately exposing their children to different accents. A total of 15% of parents reported that their children’s accents frequently or occasionally change when speaking to them. These findings have implications for the complex influences on children’s language and dialect repertoires as they relate to language attitudes, language ecology, and linguistic identity.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)
Open AccessReview
The Use of Internal State Terms by Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Scoping Review
by
Vasiliki Zarokanellou, Maria Andreou and Katerina Papanikolaou
Languages 2026, 11(6), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060127 - 17 Jun 2026
Abstract
Internal state terms (ISTs) include words describing emotions, thoughts, volitions, obligations, desires, and perceptions. This scoping review aimed to map and synthesize evidence regarding the production of ISTs in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) without intellectual disability and to investigate the effects
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Internal state terms (ISTs) include words describing emotions, thoughts, volitions, obligations, desires, and perceptions. This scoping review aimed to map and synthesize evidence regarding the production of ISTs in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) without intellectual disability and to investigate the effects of age, gender, Theory of Mind (ToM) skills, and elicitation tasks on their production. A literature search was conducted manually and electronically in Scopus, ScienceDirect, ERIC, and PubMed, identifying 29 peer-reviewed empirical studies published between 2006 and 2025. Findings were heterogeneous. Some studies reported lower IST production in individuals with ASD compared to neurotypical controls, whereas others found differences only in specific IST categories, mainly cognition and emotion terms, or reported no significant group differences. Findings regarding gender, ToM skills, and elicitation tasks were mixed. In both groups, older participants produced more ISTs than younger participants; however, developmental trajectories suggested that emotion and cognition terms were particularly challenging for individuals with ASD, who required more time to acquire them than their typically developing (TD) peers. Furthermore, TD participants produced significantly more ISTs when narrating people’s everyday interactions, whereas communication context did not appear to influence IST production in individuals with ASD. Research examining IST production in preschoolers and adults with ASD remains limited, and little is known about the developmental trajectories of ISTs in this population.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Language Disorders in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs))
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Open AccessArticle
Semantic Processing and Individual Variation: Experimental and Modeling Evidence from Quantifier Scope
by
Shaohua Fang, Yue Li and Yan Cong
Languages 2026, 11(6), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060126 - 17 Jun 2026
Abstract
This study investigates the real-time processing of quantifier scope ambiguity using self-paced reading, comparing surface and inverse interpretations of a–every sentences. Reaction time data revealed greater processing difficulty for inverse scope, supporting an account grounded in semantic computation rather than purely heuristic-based parsing.
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This study investigates the real-time processing of quantifier scope ambiguity using self-paced reading, comparing surface and inverse interpretations of a–every sentences. Reaction time data revealed greater processing difficulty for inverse scope, supporting an account grounded in semantic computation rather than purely heuristic-based parsing. Offline interpretation results further indicate that abstract structural operations are engaged during scope computation. Surprisal estimates derived from a pre-trained autoregressive language model GPT-2 small successfully predicted both the locus and direction of scope effects observed in the human data, with partial convergence in effect magnitude. When surprisal was not considered, language experience, but not working memory, more robustly accounted for variability in complex scope interpretations. Crucially, incorporating individual differences into surprisal-based analyses showed that both language experience and working memory capacity modulate surprisal effects in scope processing: higher proficiency and greater working memory are associated with increased sensitivity to surprisal, whereas lower levels show reduced or even reversed effects, suggesting weaker engagement in expectation-based processing. Together, these findings highlight the interplay among structural complexity, cognitive resources, language experience, and expectation-based mechanisms in shaping real-time semantic processing.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradience in Syntax and Semantics: Experimental, Modeling, and Formal Perspectives)
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Open AccessArticle
Orthographic Depth and Spelling Development in Immersion Education: A Predictive Framework of Spelling Errors in French
by
Annick Comblain
Languages 2026, 11(6), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060125 - 17 Jun 2026
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Orthographic depth varies across alphabetic writing systems and plays a central role in spelling acquisition. In immersion education, a second language (L2) is used as a language of instruction for part of the curriculum, such that learners are primarily confronted with its writing
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Orthographic depth varies across alphabetic writing systems and plays a central role in spelling acquisition. In immersion education, a second language (L2) is used as a language of instruction for part of the curriculum, such that learners are primarily confronted with its writing system during the initial stages of literacy development. This early exposure may shape the spelling strategies subsequently deployed in the first language (L1), which also corresponds to the dominant language of the surrounding community. This article provides a structured review of key mechanisms involved in spelling acquisition, orthographic depth, and cross-linguistic influence in bilingual and immersion contexts. On this basis, it proposes a conceptual and predictive framework specifying how the orthographic depth of the instructional language modulates spelling strategies and spelling error profiles in L1. Focusing on French-speaking pupils enrolled in immersion programmes with L2s characterised by either predominantly phonemic or opaque orthographies, the framework integrates strategy-based models of orthographic development. The model distinguishes phonological, lexical, and morphographic components of orthographic knowledge and predicts that immersion in phonemic-dominant orthographies favours phonographic dominance and regularisation patterns, whereas immersion in opaque orthographies promotes greater reliance on lexical–orthographic strategies, resulting in distinct and systematic spelling error profiles in French.
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Open AccessArticle
From Noun Bias to Verb Sensitivity: Developmental Shifts in Japanese Children’s Word Learning from 1 to 4 Years
by
Ayumi Matsuo, Tamiko Ogura and Letitia R. Naigles
Languages 2026, 11(6), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060124 - 16 Jun 2026
Abstract
This paper examines whether noun bias serves as an early default mechanism in lexical acquisition among Japanese toddlers, despite Japanese being categorized as a “verb-friendly” language. In Experiment 1, using two complementary methods—the Japanese MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventory and an Intermodal Preferential Looking
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This paper examines whether noun bias serves as an early default mechanism in lexical acquisition among Japanese toddlers, despite Japanese being categorized as a “verb-friendly” language. In Experiment 1, using two complementary methods—the Japanese MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventory and an Intermodal Preferential Looking (IPL) study—we investigated developmental changes in word-mapping tendencies among two age groups of Japanese toddlers (18 months and 26 months). Specifically, we explored whether younger toddlers (1- and 2-year-olds) exhibit a strong preference for mapping nonce words to objects rather than actions and whether individual differences in noun dominance influence word learning in the IPL task. In Experiment 2, we explored older children (3- and 4-year-olds) to examine whether an early verb shift takes place during that age group and compared whether there is any correlation between matured syntax and verb bias. Our findings reveal a robust noun bias as early as 18 months, with older toddlers displaying a shift that suggests an emerging sensitivity to verbs, aligning with the typological characteristics of Japanese. These results provide new insights into the developmental trajectory of verb acquisition and the interaction between lexical and syntactic learning in early childhood.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue East Asian Perspectives on the Acquisition of Argument Structure)
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The Copy Theory of Control and the Analysis of Finite Control
by
Maria Rita Manzini and Anna Roussou
Languages 2026, 11(6), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060123 - 12 Jun 2026
Abstract
Under the Markovian property of derivations the history of the derivation is not preserved in the current state, hence chains cannot be read off it. Instead, a Copy relation applies between identical inscriptions at the phase level, before Transfer. Consequently, Copy can take
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Under the Markovian property of derivations the history of the derivation is not preserved in the current state, hence chains cannot be read off it. Instead, a Copy relation applies between identical inscriptions at the phase level, before Transfer. Consequently, Copy can take place between two identical theta-marked arguments, each separately introduced by External Merge, yielding control. In this article, we apply the Copy Theory of Control (CTC) to finite control in Greek. In finite control, the lower member of a Copy relation is interpreted as a bound variable (i.e., a ‘PRO’). At the same time its deletion is licensed in a null subject configuration, defined by Agree with rich I (like a ‘pro’). Since by hypothesis under the CTC there are no empty categories but only copies, the potential contradiction between PRO and pro properties can be avoided, under appropriate assumptions about the modular organization of the interfaces. We further predict that the same (subjunctive) structure in Greek can be ambiguous between control and pronominal null subject readings, and that non-null subject languages like English cannot have finite control.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morpho(phono)logy/Syntax Interface)
Open AccessArticle
Aspects of Use of the Modern Lesbian Dialect in the Linguistic Landscape of Mytilene
by
Costas Canakis and Irene Kouniarelli
Languages 2026, 11(6), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060122 - 12 Jun 2026
Abstract
We focus on the use of the Modern Lesbian dialect in the linguistic landscape (LL), highlighting its diverse forms and functions. Since LL research primarily investigates written language in public space, emphasizing the dynamic relationship between language, place, and historicity, the growing visibility
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We focus on the use of the Modern Lesbian dialect in the linguistic landscape (LL), highlighting its diverse forms and functions. Since LL research primarily investigates written language in public space, emphasizing the dynamic relationship between language, place, and historicity, the growing visibility of the dialect in both physical and digital contexts (cf. the online–offline nexus) is particularly noteworthy. The presence of non-standard varieties in public discourse has been widely studied, revealing that aspects of language choice and use are related to the sustainability of minority languages, the shaping of linguistic attitudes and stereotypes, and the commodification of language as a cultural and economic resource. Within this framework, the data analyzed here illustrate positive attitudes toward Modern Lesbian, expressions of pride and comfort among its speakers, efforts to destigmatize dialectal speech, and indications of broader acceptance of Modern Lesbian. Meanwhile, the increasing commodification of the dialect is evident in its use for the promotion of products and services, capitalizing on its distinctiveness, despite its historical stigmatization vis-à-vis the standard. This development does not dissolve entrenched beliefs on the incompatibility of dialects with written discourse; rather, it capitalizes on the surprise (and humor) generated by their written presence in promotional contexts without resorting to humorous stereotyping.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Modern Dialect of Lesbos: Selected Topics)
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Contact-Induced Changes Through Linguistic Convergence in Basque-Spanish
by
Sara Gómez Seibane
Languages 2026, 11(6), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060121 - 12 Jun 2026
Abstract
This study focuses on the Spanish spoken in the Basque Autonomous Community, where Spanish and Basque, two typologically distant languages, have coexisted for centuries. The research explores how specific morphosyntactic features result from pattern replication, i.e., changes in the target language (Spanish) inspired
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This study focuses on the Spanish spoken in the Basque Autonomous Community, where Spanish and Basque, two typologically distant languages, have coexisted for centuries. The research explores how specific morphosyntactic features result from pattern replication, i.e., changes in the target language (Spanish) inspired by structures of the source language (Basque) and triggered by the communicative needs of bilingual speakers. The analysis focuses on three key features: object-verb word order, non-standard gender agreement constructions, and the use of le/s for human female direct objects. Data from previous studies support these features as contact-induced changes, as they are either absent in non-contact varieties or follow different constraints. Specifically, in the Basque-Spanish variety, these phenomena exhibit higher frequency, a simplification of a paradigm, and the relaxation of grammatical restrictions, frequently aligning with Basque structures. Beyond internal factors, other empirical evidence supports contact as the primary driver. The paper explains how linguistic convergence leads to a shifting of constraints on these phenomena to reduce the cognitive load of processing two languages. Ultimately, these contact-induced changes went beyond individual bilingual strategies to become established features of the wider community, eventually reaching even monolingual Spanish speakers.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shifting Borders: Spanish Morphosyntax in Contact Zones)
Open AccessBook Review
Hybrid Book Review: Baratta (2022). The Societal Codification of Korean English. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN: 978-1-350-18908-9
by
Jocelyn Wright, Robert J. Dickey and Kara Mac Donald
Languages 2026, 11(6), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060120 - 12 Jun 2026
Abstract
We, the reviewers, explore Alex Baratta’s The Societal Codification of Korean English, highlighting Korean English (KE), since expanding circle English varieties are often overlooked despite their significant global role. Baratta argues that codification should be reconceptualized as a societal process driven by
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We, the reviewers, explore Alex Baratta’s The Societal Codification of Korean English, highlighting Korean English (KE), since expanding circle English varieties are often overlooked despite their significant global role. Baratta argues that codification should be reconceptualized as a societal process driven by users themselves, where socially-used innovations become legitimate conventions, rather than having to be officially recognized as per tradition. Building on and moving beyond other works, he insists the field cannot wait for formal codification, even while acknowledging that some may find his framing of KE unconvincing or premature. We summarize such arguments around the legitimization of KE, offer insights into what Baratta’s work effectively addresses and leaves less explored. We then offer a conceptual matrix and metaphor to depict the complexity of KE and its codification. Finally, we introduce a new term, “K-English(es)”. The review aims to help readers better grasp the nuanced dynamics of KE that Baratta and the field engage with and to situate readers’ own interests (e.g., as English language teachers or Hallyu fans) around KE, while supporting the expanding scholarship on the topic.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring World Englishes)
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Effects of Syntactic Structures on Intonational Pitch Movement in Mandarin Chinese
by
Ling Zhang
Languages 2026, 11(6), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060119 - 11 Jun 2026
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Previous research on Mandarin Chinese tones and intonation has focused primarily on universal sentence pitch patterns (declination) and sentence types (declarative and interrogative). The specific impact of internal syntactic structures remains under-explored. This study presents two acoustic experiments using controlled Tone 1 (high-level)
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Previous research on Mandarin Chinese tones and intonation has focused primarily on universal sentence pitch patterns (declination) and sentence types (declarative and interrogative). The specific impact of internal syntactic structures remains under-explored. This study presents two acoustic experiments using controlled Tone 1 (high-level) stimuli to isolate intonational “big waves” from lexical “small ripples”. Experiment 1 investigates how syntactic position (subject vs. object), relative clause type (subject-relative vs. object-relative), and word class (verb vs. noun) influence pitch contours. Experiment 2 resolves conflicting findings regarding word-class pitch by testing nouns and verbs across four sentential contexts. The results indicate that subject positions carry significantly higher pitch than object positions, reflecting an interaction between SVO word order and declination. Crucially, subject-relative (SR) clauses exhibit a falling pitch tendency, while object-relative (OR) clauses show a rising trend. These results suggest that pitch realization is a complex “algebraic sum” of universal phonological trends, syntactic hierarchy, and semantic information structure.
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Does Variation in Lexical Sentiment Scores Reflect Emotional Polysemy and Ambivalence?
by
Andreas Baumann
Languages 2026, 11(6), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060118 - 11 Jun 2026
Abstract
To measure the emotional meaning of words, numerical sentiment scores are ascribed to them. However, within individual words these scores show variation: within and across annotation surveys, across linguistic contexts, and across semantic neighbors. While such variation could be set aside as undesirable
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To measure the emotional meaning of words, numerical sentiment scores are ascribed to them. However, within individual words these scores show variation: within and across annotation surveys, across linguistic contexts, and across semantic neighbors. While such variation could be set aside as undesirable noise, this study examines to what extent variation in lexical sentiment scores is in fact informative of the degree of the emotional ambiguity of words. Four different ways of estimating emotional polysemy and ambivalence are employed to analyze a set of 117 German words. Data from 16 sentiment dictionaries, an additional sentiment survey conducted for this study, automatically annotated contexts drawn from a contemporary German corpus, and pre-trained word embeddings were used for this purpose. These estimates are compared against subjectively rated ambivalence collected through crowdsourcing. It is shown that only variation within and across surveys robustly relates to subjective ambivalence. Context and neighborhood-based estimates, both of which are inherently sensitive to lexical frequency, cannot be shown to be related to ambivalence. This suggests, (i) that variation in lexical sentiment scores across dictionaries and annotators, but not across semantic neighbors and contexts, carries information about emotional meaning, and is hence valuable for cognitive-variationist research, and (ii) that speakers’ retrieval of positive and negative senses of words, in judging the degree of ambivalence, is not strongly affected by frequency, which is fundamental to NLP methods that build on distributional semantics. This implicitly challenges usage-based approaches to semantics that consider frequency as a predominant factor.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Variationist Linguistics on German—Focus on Lexis and Pragmatics)
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Linguistic Universals and Dialects: The Future as ‘Injunctive’ in the Inscriptions of Mytilene
by
Maria Karali
Languages 2026, 11(6), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060117 - 8 Jun 2026
Abstract
This study poses the question of whether certain linguistic features are not subject to dialectal variation, a question that requires thorough examination in the corpus of Ancient Greek dialects. To this end, the semantics and the pragmatic function of the injunctive/existential future is
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This study poses the question of whether certain linguistic features are not subject to dialectal variation, a question that requires thorough examination in the corpus of Ancient Greek dialects. To this end, the semantics and the pragmatic function of the injunctive/existential future is examined in the dialectal inscriptions of Ancient Mytilene, in the framework of cognitive semantics, deontic modality, and STIT, a semantic model of agency and control. The first line of enquiry regards the distribution of the semantic functions of the form: is it the case that all semantic nuances of ‘FUTURE TENSE’ are attested in the entirety of Ancient Greek dialects? A second line of enquiry regards the semantics of the form, and more particularly the fact that it expressed extreme deontic force, as if it were a type of injunctive. The form was detached from a specific deontic source, i.e., it merely represented a moral principle in a rather abstract, general form. Its meaning approximated that of infinitive pro imperativo, in that both types indicated what was morally right as a general legal requirement. Particular attention is given to the semantic/pragmatic distinction of the form from the imperative mood. It is claimed that a scale of an agent’s involvement in the verbal action distinguishes imperatival infinitives, injunctive futures and imperatives and that a shift from an objective to a more subjective expression of deontic necessity affects injunctive futures in the history of Greek. The existential future had no performative, directive force, this pragmatic task was performed by imperatives and imperatival infinitives. The existential future denoted absolute certainty in the realization of a prospective fact and presented a projected reality as if it were real in the present of the utterance, hence the characterization as existential. As such it lends support to the view that temporality is tightly connected to modality. The existential meaning of the future seems to be an innovation within Greek and became more frequent in (post)classical times. It appears as a panhellenic feature, but further verification is needed.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Modern Dialect of Lesbos: Selected Topics)
Open AccessBrief Report
Érase una vez: An Exploratory Study of a Therapeutic Game for Enhancing Verbal Fluency in Children
by
Dan Roger Pozza, Nuria Presencia Alapont, Carmen Moret-Tatay and Irani de Lima Argimon
Languages 2026, 11(6), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060116 - 8 Jun 2026
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Serious games represent a promising pedagogical approach by combining therapeutic and educational goals through play. This study examined the potential of a culturally adapted version of Érase una vez, a narrative-based card game originally developed in Brazil, to foster and assess narrative
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Serious games represent a promising pedagogical approach by combining therapeutic and educational goals through play. This study examined the potential of a culturally adapted version of Érase una vez, a narrative-based card game originally developed in Brazil, to foster and assess narrative competence in school-aged children. Twenty typically developing children (ages 8–9 and 11–12) participated in both individual written and group oral storytelling tasks. Usability perceptions were assessed through questionnaires and the System Usability Scale, while linguistic performance was analyzed using quantitative and qualitative approaches. Statistical methods and computational linguistic tools were applied to measure lexical, syntactic, and pragmatic features. Results indicated high engagement and satisfaction, with over 95% of participants reporting positive experiences. Narrative productions revealed significant age-related differences: older children generated longer and syntactically more complex stories, while younger groups produced simpler structures with lower lexical variety. Group narratives reflected classroom-level effects, with sixth graders achieving greater cohesion and creativity. Findings support the integration of Érase una vez as both a pedagogical and therapeutic tool. Its playful and flexible format promotes motivation, reduces performance anxiety, and elicits rich, naturalistic language samples. Despite limitations of sample size and design, results encourage further exploration of serious games in educational and clinical contexts.
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Open AccessArticle
Languages on the Periphery: Historical, Geographic, and Contact Factors in the Formation of Hunan’s Linguistic Ecosystem
by
Robert Marcelo Sevilla
Languages 2026, 11(6), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060115 - 3 Jun 2026
Abstract
The region today corresponding to modern Hunan province has been a site of stable language contact for over 2500 years, with the intensification of that contact occurring in particular between the 17th and 21st centuries. Major political developments during this time led to
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The region today corresponding to modern Hunan province has been a site of stable language contact for over 2500 years, with the intensification of that contact occurring in particular between the 17th and 21st centuries. Major political developments during this time led to massive population movements which reshaped the demographics and linguistic ecology of Hunan. The region has considerable language and phylogenetic diversity, being home to three top-level groupings (Sino-Tibetan, Kra-Dai, and Hmong-Mien) and representing at least 17 different language varieties within a condensed area of around 211,800 km2; it is therefore the ideal setting to explore long-term language contact as mediated by degrees of relatedness. Structural diversity, in terms of morphological and phonological typology, is relatively low, owing to convergence over several thousand years. All language varieties in the province converge towards the MSEA typological profile; however, those that entered the region latest, such as varieties of Tujia, still retain features from outside the region (SOV, multisyllabic roots, etc.). In this paper the case is made that Hunan, with its geography, history of settlement, and contact between related and unrelated language families, represents a microcosm of linguistic contact situations which have taken place in other periods and regions of China. This is attributed to a combination of geographic and demographic patterns, historical patterns of settlement and ethnic conflict, and a complex sociolinguistic situation. Taken together, these lead to the formation of a unique linguistic niche where stable near-relative contact, distant-relative contact, and non-relative contact take place. The case is made that instances of near-relative contact between Xiang varieties and Mandarin (Standard and Southwestern) represent instances of koineization. This is evidenced by the formation of regional koines, such as Plastic Mandarin in Changsha, which present a degree of local prestige and show evidence of regional standard formation. Meanwhile distant- and non-relative contact between Southwestern/Standard Mandarin and Tujia and Waxiang, and Xiangxi Miao and Kam-Dong, respectively, are seen to result in extensive grammatical hybridization.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Languages and Their Neighbours in Southeast Asia)
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Open AccessArticle
Between Lexicon and Grammar: Grammaticalization and Lexicalization in the Diachrony of the Phrasal Preposition por vía de in Spanish
by
Cristina Buenafuentes De La Mata
Languages 2026, 11(6), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060114 - 3 Jun 2026
Abstract
Every new phrasal preposition results from a process of grammaticalization, through which elements originally considered lexical acquire grammatical functions. At the same time, their complex status also entails a process of lexicalization, given that these constructions lose their syntactic analyzability. To address this
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Every new phrasal preposition results from a process of grammaticalization, through which elements originally considered lexical acquire grammatical functions. At the same time, their complex status also entails a process of lexicalization, given that these constructions lose their syntactic analyzability. To address this apparent contradiction, the aim of this article is to provide a theoretical account within the theories of grammaticalization and lexicalization. Based on new empirical evidence taken from the historical analysis of the Spanish complex preposition por vía de ‘by way of’, as documented in the Corpus del Diccionario histórico de la lengua española (CDH), this research demonstrates the relationship between grammaticalization and lexicalization. The diachronic data show that the locative noun vía undergoes grammaticalization. This process involves semantic bleaching (locative-perlative, perlative-figurative intermediation, perlative-figurative mediation, cause, purpose; e.g., por vía de Francia ‘by way of France’, por vía de intérprete ‘through an interpreter’, por vía de matrimonio ‘by means of marriage’, por vía de padre ‘on my father’s side’), recategorization, loss of morphological properties, external fixation, and condensation. However, this development is conditioned by lexicalization, as the noun is grammaticalized only when it becomes fixed in combination with the two prepositions (por and de). Nonetheless, the diachronic evidence also shows that the degree of syntactic analyzability varies according to meaning, indicating that analyzability does not necessarily entail semantic compositionality.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Romance Historical Syntax: Special Issue on Syntactic Analyzability in Diachrony)
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Open AccessArticle
Global Cues to Spanish Differential Object Marking in Monolingual and Bilingual Child-Directed Speech
by
Pablo E. Requena
Languages 2026, 11(6), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060113 - 2 Jun 2026
Abstract
Spanish Differential Object Marking (DOM) is conditioned by well-known local properties of the direct object, but also by clause- and discourse-level factors. In this study, we examine whether these factors are also available as potential learning cues in child-directed speech (CDS). We analyzed
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Spanish Differential Object Marking (DOM) is conditioned by well-known local properties of the direct object, but also by clause- and discourse-level factors. In this study, we examine whether these factors are also available as potential learning cues in child-directed speech (CDS). We analyzed longitudinal naturalistic CDS from two monolingual and three bilingual (heritage) Spanish-learning children, manually extracting transitive clauses and coding DOM presence alongside discourse specificity, verb class, coreferential pronoun (clitic doubling), relative animacy, and DO placement, plus two local cues for comparison. Regression analyses revealed that a wider range of local and global factors conditioned DOM in monolingual than in bilingual CDS. The potential informativeness of these factors as learning cues was quantified using Competition Model measures of availability, reliability, and validity. In monolingual CDS, local cues (+human, pronominal/proper name DOs) were highly reliable, and two global cues (clitic doubling and relative animacy) showed moderate reliability. Whereas discourse specificity and verb class were highly available, they were comparatively unreliable. Validity values were uniformly low; although several global cues matched or exceeded local cues in validity, this pattern largely reflected their greater availability rather than higher reliability. In bilingual CDS, reliability and validity were reduced across nearly all cues, with little differentiation among cues. These findings suggest that Spanish-learning children encounter potentially usable utterance- and discourse-level evidence for DOM in CDS, but that the robustness of this evidence is markedly weaker in bilingual input.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Syntax of Child Language)
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Open AccessArticle
Transgenerational Differences in Turkish Heritage Speakers: The Case of Turkish Definiteness
by
Serkan Uygun and Leyla Zidani-Eroğlu
Languages 2026, 11(6), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060112 - 2 Jun 2026
Abstract
In Turkish, definiteness is marked through accusative case marking -(y)I and the presence or absence of the prenominal determiner bir (one). Crucially the latter may function as an indefinite determiner depending on the context. Previous studies have shown that definiteness is a vulnerable
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In Turkish, definiteness is marked through accusative case marking -(y)I and the presence or absence of the prenominal determiner bir (one). Crucially the latter may function as an indefinite determiner depending on the context. Previous studies have shown that definiteness is a vulnerable phenomenon for Turkish heritage speakers, as they have to integrate different language modules (e.g., morphosyntax and discourse/pragmatics). This study tested 49 monolingual Turkish speakers from Türkiye and 32 heritage speakers from the USA via an acceptability judgment task. Twenty-three of the heritage speakers were first-generation, and nine were second-generation heritage speakers. The experimental stimuli were created by manipulating both the grammatical number of the object (singular bir kitap ‘one/a book’ vs. plural kitap-lar ‘books’) and whether the object was preceded by a numeric determiner (bare kitap ‘a book’ vs. non-bare beş kitap ‘five books’) to test the acceptability of the nominal’s correct definiteness marking in a subsequent sentence. The results indicate significant discrepancies between the first- and second-generation heritage speakers, indicating crucial transgenerational variation in the use of the correct form of Turkish definiteness, while the first-generation and monolingual speakers do not differ from each other. These findings suggest that the integration of morphosyntax and discourse/pragmatics in definiteness marking, a particular aspect of linguistic competence within theorizing in generative grammar, does not seem to be fully acquired by second-generation heritage speakers as a result of acquiring Turkish under heritage language conditions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Migrant to Heritage Languages: Transgenerational Language Change in Diasporic Communities)
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Open AccessArticle
Tactile Verbs and the Expression of Chance Events in Latin and Italian
by
Flavia Pompeo
Languages 2026, 11(6), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060111 - 2 Jun 2026
Abstract
In studies on the polysemy of tactile verbs, there is a semantic field that has hitherto received scant attention: the expression of “chance events”. In an effort to partially fill this gap and lay the foundations for future research, this paper has two
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In studies on the polysemy of tactile verbs, there is a semantic field that has hitherto received scant attention: the expression of “chance events”. In an effort to partially fill this gap and lay the foundations for future research, this paper has two interrelated aims: (a) to clarify what constitutes a chance event when Latin contingo, obtingo, and, in particular, Italian toccare convey this type of meaning; and (b) to identify the semantic motivation and the conceptual mechanisms that underlie such use. To this end, using a corpus-based, largely qualitative analysis, occurrences of the Latin and Italian verbs will be examined, focusing on their constructions and the semantics of their arguments. Data will be collected from dictionaries, other lexicographical sources, and digital corpora. The theoretical approach adopted is that of Cognitive Linguistics. In conclusion, the analysis will evidence that verbs related to the meaning ‘to touch’, when used to express chance events in Latin and Italian, involve similar constructions that are explicable from a cognitive perspective. Ultimately, it will be suggested that the “bipolarity of touch” and other related characteristics help explain why tactile verbs can express chance events. This is consistent with Fernández Jaén’s 2014 classification.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Semantics of Perception Verbs)
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