Languages

31 pages, 1409 KB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Emotion Recognition Through Language: The Development and Validation of an English Productive Emotion Vocabulary Size Test

by Allen Jie Ein Chee, Csaba Zoltan Szabo and Sharimila Ambrose

Languages 2025, 10(9), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090204 - 25 Aug 2025

Abstract

Emotion vocabulary is essential for recognising, expressing, and regulating emotions, playing a critical role in language proficiency and emotional competence. However, traditional vocabulary assessments have largely overlooked emotion-specific lexicons, limiting their ability to identify learners’ gaps in this area. Therefore, this study addresses [...] Read more.

Emotion vocabulary is essential for recognising, expressing, and regulating emotions, playing a critical role in language proficiency and emotional competence. However, traditional vocabulary assessments have largely overlooked emotion-specific lexicons, limiting their ability to identify learners’ gaps in this area. Therefore, this study addresses this gap by developing and validating the Productive Emotion Vocabulary Size Test (PEVST), a tool designed to evaluate productive emotion vocabulary knowledge in ESL/EFL contexts. The PEVST incorporates low-, mid-, and high-frequency emotion words, assessed through context-rich vignettes, offering a comprehensive tool for measuring productive emotion vocabulary knowledge. The study recruited 156 adult participants with varying language proficiency levels. Findings revealed that word frequency significantly influenced production accuracy: higher frequency words were more easily retrieved, while lower frequency words often elicited higher frequency synonyms. Rasch analysis provided validity evidence for the test’s scoring, highlighting the effectiveness of a granular scoring system that considers nuanced responses. However, some limitations arose from misfitting items and the homogeneity of participants’ language proficiency, calling for further evidence with a more linguaculturally diverse target group and careful control for individual differences. Future iterations should address these challenges by incorporating cultural adaptations and accounting for individual differences. The PEVST offers a robust foundation for advancing emotion vocabulary assessment, deepening our understanding of the interplay between language, emotions, and cognition, and informing emotion-focused language pedagogy. Full article

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36 pages, 614 KB

Open AccessArticle

Iterative/Semelfactive = Collective/Singulative? Parallels in Slavic

by Marcin Wągiel

Languages 2025, 10(9), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090203 - 22 Aug 2025

Abstract

In this paper, I will discuss a topic concerning part–whole structures in the nominal and verbal domain. Specifically, I will address the question of whether there is a universal mechanism for the individuation of entities and events by exploring parallels between singulatives and [...] Read more.

In this paper, I will discuss a topic concerning part–whole structures in the nominal and verbal domain. Specifically, I will address the question of whether there is a universal mechanism for the individuation of entities and events by exploring parallels between singulatives and semelfactives in Slavic. Singulatives are derived unit nouns, whereas semelfactives are punctual verbs that describe a brief event which culminates by returning to the initial state. Cross-linguistically, singulative morphology often alternates with collective marking, whereas semelfactives alternate with iteratives. Collectives and iteratives describe homogenous groupings of entities and events, respectively. From a conceptual perspective, both singulatives and semelfactives individuate to the effect of singular bounded unit reference and in the literature, the parallel between the mass count/distinction and aspect has often been drawn. In Slavic, singulative and semelfactive morphologies share a component; specifically, both markers involve a nasal -n and a vocalic component, e.g., compare Russian gorox ‘peas (as a mass)’ ∼goroš-in-a ‘a pea’ and prygať ‘to jump (repeatedly)’ ∼ pryg-nu-ť ‘to jump once’. I will argue that the singulative -in and semelfactive -nu are complex and both involve the very same -n, which denotes a declustering atomizer modeled in mereotopological terms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb: Analogies in Different Languages and Other Grammatical Domains)

35 pages, 2588 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Determiners in the Processing of Gender Agreement Morphology by Heritage Speakers of Spanish

by Danny Melendez, Jill Jegerski and Silvina Andrea Montrul

Languages 2025, 10(9), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090202 - 22 Aug 2025

Abstract

This eye-tracking study examined how heritage speakers of Spanish process gender agreement morphology at a distance, focusing on the activation of the gender feature during sentence processing. Previous work is conceptually replicated and further extended by assessing (1) whether reduced sensitivity to gender [...] Read more.

This eye-tracking study examined how heritage speakers of Spanish process gender agreement morphology at a distance, focusing on the activation of the gender feature during sentence processing. Previous work is conceptually replicated and further extended by assessing (1) whether reduced sensitivity to gender agreement mismatches when another word intervenes between the head noun and its modifying adjective stems from weakened gender feature activation, (2) whether a gender-marked determiner enhances this activation, and (3) whether Age of Onset of Bilingualism (AOB) plays a role in this activation. Fifty-three English-dominant heritage speakers of Spanish and a comparison group of 32 Spanish-dominant monolingually raised speakers read sentences with and without gender agreement mismatches while their eye movements were monitored. Sentences contained mismatches in adjectives modified by the intensifier “muy” under two conditions: a No Cue condition (e.g., árboles muy altos/*altas) and a Cue condition with a gender-marked determiner (e.g., unos árboles muy altos/*altas). Statistical modeling of the eye-tracking data suggests similar effects for both groups in the No Cue condition, but AOB and proficiency modulated sensitivity for heritage speakers with a later AOB (4–6). Gender cues on the determiner (Cue condition) impacted the time course of agreement processing for all groups, the total time spent reading mismatches for all heritage speakers as a function of proficiency, and the rereading time for heritage speakers with a later AOB (4–9). We consider the role of Age of Onset of Bilingualism (AOB) and proficiency in morphosyntactic processing, feature retrieval, and cue facilitation in heritage language processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)

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19 pages, 327 KB

Open AccessArticle

On the Acquisition of English Complex Predicates and Complex Word Formation: Revisiting the Parametric Approach

by Ting Xu and Shuyan Wang

Languages 2025, 10(8), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080201 - 21 Aug 2025

Abstract

Languages vary in their availability of productive endocentric bare-stem compounds (e.g., flower hat) and a range of complex predicates (separable verb-particles, double object datives, adjectival resultatives, put-locatives, make-causatives, and perceptual reports). To account for these cross-linguistic variations, two parameters have [...] Read more.

Languages vary in their availability of productive endocentric bare-stem compounds (e.g., flower hat) and a range of complex predicates (separable verb-particles, double object datives, adjectival resultatives, put-locatives, make-causatives, and perceptual reports). To account for these cross-linguistic variations, two parameters have been proposed: the Compounding Parameter (TCP), which governs the formation of bare-stem compounds, separable verb-particles, and adjectival resultatives, and the Small Clause Parameter (SCP), which determines whether a verb can take a small clause complement. These parameters make testable predictions about children’s acquisition. If TCP and SCP are on the right track, we would expect correlations in the acquisition of structures governed by each parameter. This study examines these predictions by analyzing longitudinal corpora from 23 English-speaking children, assessing both the correlation between the acquisition of different structures and their acquisitional ordering. Our findings support both TCP and SCP, confirming that the acquisition of bare-stem compounds is closely associated with that of separable verb-particles, while the acquisition of (some) complex predicates is related. In addition, our results offer new insights into the potential triggers that children use to set each parameter. These findings contribute to our understanding of language variation and the role of parameter setting in first language acquisition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parametric Approaches to Cross-Linguistic Variation and Child Language Acquisition)

25 pages, 1665 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Translanguaging and Second-Language Reading Proficiency: A Systematic Review of Effects and Methodological Rigor

by Muhammad Asif Qureshi and Mansoor Al-Surmi

Languages 2025, 10(8), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080200 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

Translanguaging has become a significant concept in applied linguistics, promoting inclusive education and equitable treatment of languages. However, despite its increasing prominence, the impact of translanguaging pedagogy on second-language (L2) reading proficiency and the methodological rigor of studies in this area remain insufficiently [...] Read more.

Translanguaging has become a significant concept in applied linguistics, promoting inclusive education and equitable treatment of languages. However, despite its increasing prominence, the impact of translanguaging pedagogy on second-language (L2) reading proficiency and the methodological rigor of studies in this area remain insufficiently examined. This systematic review, conducted in alignment with the PRISMA guidelines, addresses these gaps by analyzing 21 studies comprising 25 samples that examine the relationship between translanguaging and L2 reading development. The findings indicate a small but statistically significant positive effect of translanguaging on L2 reading comprehension (g = 0.33, CI [0.21–0.45]), though considerable variation exists across studies. Qualitative research (k = 9) generally reports favorable outcomes, while quantitative studies (k = 16) present mixed findings—ten studies show positive effects, whereas six report no significant impact. The methodological assessment highlights several shortcomings, including the absence of a priori power analysis, inconsistencies in reporting instrument and coding reliability, insufficient transparency in data reporting, and vagueness in the implementation of translanguaging practices. Additionally, contextual trends reveal a need for more research in underrepresented regions and secondary school contexts. This review emphasizes the importance of conducting rigorous, contextually diverse research to validate translanguaging as an effective approach for enhancing L2 reading proficiency. Full article

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35 pages, 493 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of Grammatical Gradience in Relation to the Distributional Properties of Verbal Nouns in Scottish Gaelic

by Avelino Corral Esteban

Languages 2025, 10(8), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080199 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

Verbal nouns in Insular Celtic languages have long been a subject of interest because they are capable of exhibiting both nominal and verbal properties, posing a persistent challenge when it comes to determining their precise categorization. This study therefore seeks to examine the [...] Read more.

Verbal nouns in Insular Celtic languages have long been a subject of interest because they are capable of exhibiting both nominal and verbal properties, posing a persistent challenge when it comes to determining their precise categorization. This study therefore seeks to examine the intersective gradience of verbal nouns in Scottish Gaelic from a functional-typological and multidimensional perspective, providing an insight into the interaction between their morphosyntactic, semantic, and pragmatic properties and their lexical categorization, and, consequently, encouraging a broader discussion on linguistic gradience. This hybrid category plays a central role in the clause structure of Scottish Gaelic, as it appears in a wide range of distinct grammatical constructions. Drawing on a range of diagnostic tests revealing the morphosyntactic and semantic properties of verbal nouns across various contexts (e.g., etymology, morphological structure, inflection, case marking, TAM features, syntactic function, types of modification, form and position of objects, distributional patterns, cleft constructions, argument structure, subcategorization, etc.), this line of research identifies two key environments, depending on whether the construction features a verbal noun functioning either as a verb or a noun. This distinction aims to illustrate the way in which these contexts condition the gradience of verbal nouns. By doing so, it provides strong evidence for their function along a continuum ranging from fully verbal to fully nominal depending on their syntactic context and semantic and pragmatic interpretation. In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that the use of verbal nouns blurs the line between two lexical categories, often displaying mixed properties that challenge a rigid categorization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradience in Syntax and Semantics: Experimental, Modeling, and Formal Perspectives)

19 pages, 1612 KB

Open AccessArticle

Listening for Region: Phonetic Cue Sensitivity and Sociolinguistic Development in L2 Spanish

by Lauren B. Schmidt

Languages 2025, 10(8), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080198 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study investigates how second language (L2) learners of Spanish identify the regional origin of native Spanish speakers and whether specific phonetic cues predict dialect identification accuracy across proficiency levels. Situated within a growing body of work on sociolinguistic competence, this research addresses [...] Read more.

This study investigates how second language (L2) learners of Spanish identify the regional origin of native Spanish speakers and whether specific phonetic cues predict dialect identification accuracy across proficiency levels. Situated within a growing body of work on sociolinguistic competence, this research addresses the development of learners’ ability to use linguistic forms not only for communication but also for social interpretation. A dialect identification task was administered to 111 American English-speaking learners of Spanish and 19 native Spanish speakers. Participants heard sentence-length stimuli targeting regional phonetic features and selected the speaker’s country of origin. While L2 learners were able to identify regional dialects above chance, accuracy was low and significantly below that of native speakers. Higher-proficiency learners demonstrated improved identification, especially for speakers from Spain and Argentina, and relied more on salient phonetic cues (e.g., [θ], [ʃ]). No significant development was found for identification of Mexican or Puerto Rican varieties. Unlike native speakers, L2 learners did not show sensitivity to broader macrodialect groupings; instead, they frequently defaulted to high-exposure varieties (e.g., Spain, Mexico) regardless of the phonetic cues present. Findings suggest that sociophonetic perception in L2 Spanish develops gradually and unevenly, shaped by cue salience and exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)

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20 pages, 1064 KB

Open AccessArticle

Very Young Children Learning German Notice the Incorrect Syllable Stress of Words

by Ulrike Schild and Claudia Katrin Friedrich

Languages 2025, 10(8), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080197 - 18 Aug 2025

Abstract

Syllable stress can help to quickly identify words in a language with variable stress placement like German. Here, we asked at what age incorrect syllable stress impairs language learners’ attempts to assign meaning to familiar words. We recorded the looking times of young [...] Read more.

Syllable stress can help to quickly identify words in a language with variable stress placement like German. Here, we asked at what age incorrect syllable stress impairs language learners’ attempts to assign meaning to familiar words. We recorded the looking times of young children learning German aged from 4 to 15 months (infants, N69) and 2 to 4 years (toddlers, N28). Participants saw displays of two pictures (e.g., a car and a baby); one of both objects (the target) was named. The disyllabic name of the target was either correctly stressed on the first syllable (“BA.by”) or it was incorrectly stressed on the second syllable (“ba.BY”). On average, all children looked more at the target when they heard its correctly stressed name (compared to the incorrectly stressed name). Furthermore, the analyses of growth curves for all children showed a steeper increase in looking time at the target picture when children heard the correctly stressed target’s name compared to the incorrectly stressed name. These results thus suggest that even very young German-learning children use syllable stress for incremental word-meaning mapping. However, separate post hoc analyses revealed robust differences in overall target fixations only in toddlers but not in infants. The stronger effects in toddlers compared to infants could be related either to the growing vocabulary or the increasing sensitivity to word stress with increasing age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)

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17 pages, 1086 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hop(p)la in French and German

by Andrea Golato and Peter S. Golato

Languages 2025, 10(8), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080196 - 18 Aug 2025

Abstract

There is a growing body of conversation analytic research on the role of vocalizations and interjections in interaction. This conversation analytic article contributes to this research by comparing the use and functions of the interjection hop(p)la in French and German interaction. While hop(p)la [...] Read more.

There is a growing body of conversation analytic research on the role of vocalizations and interjections in interaction. This conversation analytic article contributes to this research by comparing the use and functions of the interjection hop(p)la in French and German interaction. While hop(p)la occurs frequently in everyday French and German conversation, it has not been studied as it occurs in real time. The data come from publicly-available data repositories and from the authors’ own collections. Findings show that the use and function of hop(p)la differs from what is described in popular culture publications. In addition, there are differences in the function of hop(p)la as it is used in French and German. The paper discusses the implications of this research for language teaching, translation, and applications in AI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Pragmatics in Contemporary Cross-Cultural Contexts)

28 pages, 3308 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Discourse Markers in German Palliative Care Interactions

by Aaron Schmidt-Riese

Languages 2025, 10(8), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080195 - 18 Aug 2025

Abstract

The aim of this study is to provide a systematic account of structural discourse markers operating at a conversational macro-level in German Palliative Care interactions, focusing on their frequency, distribution, co-occurrence, and speaker-group-specific usage. By combining qualitative approaches from conversation analysis and interactional [...] Read more.

The aim of this study is to provide a systematic account of structural discourse markers operating at a conversational macro-level in German Palliative Care interactions, focusing on their frequency, distribution, co-occurrence, and speaker-group-specific usage. By combining qualitative approaches from conversation analysis and interactional linguistics with quantitative methods from corpus linguistics, discourse markers are analyzed together as a functional category from multiple analytical perspectives to enhance the overall understanding of the use of discourse markers. The analysis reveals a functional distribution across different transition points in conversation: Whereas the German so most frequently appears in openings and transitions to non-verbal activities, gut and okay predominate in topic shifts and conversation closings. However, gut and okay differ in their composition of discursive functions, although discourse structuring emerges as the second most frequent function in both cases, an observation that stands in contrast to the continued neglect of this function in standard dictionary entries. The institutional asymmetries inherent in medical interactions are reflected in the finding that both doctors and caregivers use significantly more structural discourse markers than patients and their relatives. Differences between physicians’ and caregivers’ use of discourse markers can be attributed to their different professional roles and communicative responsibilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Discourse Marker Research)

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31 pages, 900 KB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution and Timing of Verbal Backchannels in Conversational Speech: A Quantitative Study

by Michael Paierl, Anneliese Kelterer and Barbara Schuppler

Languages 2025, 10(8), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080194 - 15 Aug 2025

Abstract

This paper explores backchannels, short listener responses such as “mhm”, which play an important role in managing turn-taking and grounding in spontaneous conversation. While previous work has largely focused on their acoustic cues or listener’s behavior in isolation, this study investigates if and [...] Read more.

This paper explores backchannels, short listener responses such as “mhm”, which play an important role in managing turn-taking and grounding in spontaneous conversation. While previous work has largely focused on their acoustic cues or listener’s behavior in isolation, this study investigates if and when backchannels occur by taking into account the prosodic characteristics together with the communicative functions of the interlocutor’s speech preceding backchannels. Using a corpus of spontaneous dyadic conversations in Austrian German annotated with continuous turn-taking labels, we analyze the distribution of backchannels across different turn-taking contexts and examine which acoustic features affect their occurrence and timing by means of Conditional Inference Trees and linear mixed-effects regression models. Our findings show that the turn-taking function of the interlocutor’s utterance is a significant predictor of whether a backchannel occurs or not: Backchannels tend to occur most frequently after longer and syntactically complete utterances by the interlocutor. Moreover, prosodic features such as utterance duration, articulation rate variability and rising or falling intensity affect the timing of listener responses, with significant differences across different turn-taking functions. These results highlight the value of using continuous turn-taking annotations to investigate conversational dynamics and demonstrate how turn-taking function and prosody jointly shape backchannel behavior in spontaneous conversation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Discourse Marker Research)

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15 pages, 835 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Differential Impact of Data Collection Methods and Language Background on English Tone Choice Patterns

by Kevin Hirschi and Maria Kostromitina

Languages 2025, 10(8), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080193 - 15 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study examines the impact of spoken data collection techniques and language background on falling, level, and rising tones. Elicited data from a Discourse Completion Task (DCT), structured speech from a collaborative oral assessment task, and naturalistic speech from a comprehensive corpus of [...] Read more.

This study examines the impact of spoken data collection techniques and language background on falling, level, and rising tones. Elicited data from a Discourse Completion Task (DCT), structured speech from a collaborative oral assessment task, and naturalistic speech from a comprehensive corpus of inner-circle and Hong Kong English were analyzed for Discourse Intonation features, resulting in 2756 tone choices by 184 speakers. Multinomial logistic regression indicates that structured speech by L2 English learners and naturalistic speech by both inner circle and Hong Kong English speakers exhibited similar tone choice patterns. However, DCT responses by L2 English learners contained significantly fewer level tones and more rising tones. Qualitative analyses suggest that contrary to naturalistic studies, L2 learners use rising tones to focus their attention on the speaker during a request. L1 users, on the other hand, used a variety of tone choices that focus on language and mitigate directness. Overall, these results add further evidence that DCTs do not elicit speech that generalizes to naturalistic discourse. Structured tasks in which two L2 speakers interact mirror the rates of the inner circle and Hong Kong English speakers detected in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue L2 Speech Perception and Production in the Globalized World)

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17 pages, 1121 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acoustic Cues to Automatic Identification of Phrase Boundaries in Lithuanian: A Preparatory Study

by Eidmantė Kalašinskaitė-Zavišienė, Gailius Raškinis and Asta Kazlauskienė

Languages 2025, 10(8), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080192 - 14 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study investigates whether specific acoustic features can reliably indicate phrase boundaries for automatic detection. It includes (1) an analysis of acoustic markers at the end of prosodic units—intonational phrases, intermediate phrases, and words—and (2) the evaluation of these features in an automatic [...] Read more.

This study investigates whether specific acoustic features can reliably indicate phrase boundaries for automatic detection. It includes (1) an analysis of acoustic markers at the end of prosodic units—intonational phrases, intermediate phrases, and words—and (2) the evaluation of these features in an automatic boundary detection algorithm. Data were drawn from professionally and expressively read speech (893 words), news broadcasts (732 words), and interviews (361 words). Key features analyzed were pause duration, final sound lengthening, intensity, and F0 changes. Findings show that pauses and their duration are the most consistent indicators of phrase boundaries, especially at intonational phrase ends. Final sound lengthening and reductions in intensity and F0 also contribute but are less reliable for intermediate phrases. In automatic detection phonetic cues can be used to predict boundaries assigned by phoneticians 69% of the time. Read speech yielded better results than spontaneous speech. Among the features, pause presence and length were the most reliable, while F0 and intensity changes played a minor role. Full article

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21 pages, 1112 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluative Grammar and Non-Standard Comparatives: A Cross-Linguistic Analysis of Ukrainian and English

by Oksana Kovtun

Languages 2025, 10(8), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080191 - 6 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study examines non-standard comparative and superlative adjective forms in Ukrainian and English, emphasizing their evaluative meanings and grammatical deviations. While prescriptive grammar dictates conventional comparison patterns, modern discourse—particularly in advertising, informal communication, and literary texts—exhibits an increasing prevalence of innovative comparative structures. [...] Read more.

This study examines non-standard comparative and superlative adjective forms in Ukrainian and English, emphasizing their evaluative meanings and grammatical deviations. While prescriptive grammar dictates conventional comparison patterns, modern discourse—particularly in advertising, informal communication, and literary texts—exhibits an increasing prevalence of innovative comparative structures. Using a corpus-based approach, this research identifies patterns of positive and negative evaluative meanings, revealing that positive evaluations dominate non-standard comparatives in both languages, particularly in advertising (English: 78.5%, Ukrainian: 80.2%). However, English exhibits a higher tolerance for grammatical flexibility, while Ukrainian maintains a more restricted use, primarily in commercial and expressive discourse. The findings highlight the pragmatic and evaluative functions of such constructions, including hyperbolic emphasis, rhetorical contrast, and branding strategies. These insights contribute to research on comparative grammar, sentiment analysis, and natural language processing, particularly in modeling evaluative structures in computational linguistics. Full article

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20 pages, 367 KB

Open AccessArticle

Power Dynamics and Discourse Technologies in Jordanian Colloquial Arabic Allophonic Consonant Variations

by Bassel Alzboun, Raed Al Ramahi and Nisreen Abu Hanak

Languages 2025, 10(8), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080190 - 5 Aug 2025

Abstract

Most academic papers on Jordanian colloquial Arabic allophonic consonant variants have primarily examined their influence on the social status of speakers and their role in shaping linguistic prestige. However, there is a significant lack of research exploring the potential for manipulation and establishment [...] Read more.

Most academic papers on Jordanian colloquial Arabic allophonic consonant variants have primarily examined their influence on the social status of speakers and their role in shaping linguistic prestige. However, there is a significant lack of research exploring the potential for manipulation and establishment of power through the deliberate use of consonantal variants by Jordanian speakers in Arabic. Using a variety of allophonic consonantal variants, this study investigates how speakers of Jordanian colloquial Arabic attempt to construct their discourse of power. The targeted phonemes in the current study were /q/, /θ/, /ð/, and /k/. Focus groups were used to gather data, which were then examined within the framework of Fairclough’s technologized discourse and thematic approaches. Twenty persons, 10 women and 10 men, ranging in age from 18 to 45 years, comprised each of the two groups. The duration of each focus group session was 50 min. Analysis of the data indicates that the presence of [q], [θ], [ð], and [k] allophones in Standard Arabic is restricted to particular social circumstances, such as official and scientific environments. This usage is a common trait among those who have received formal education and privileged social standing. The findings also reveal that participants strategically utilize the allophonic variants [g], [ʔ], [k], [t̪], [d̪], and [tʃ] to exert influence over interlocutors by demonstrating authority related to social identity, gender, and emotional state. This study intends to advance discussions on allophonic consonant variants in Jordanian colloquial Arabic by providing insights into their manipulative functions. Full article

16 pages, 1047 KB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Adult Heritage Language Lexical Proficiency for Studies on Facilitative Processing of Gender

by Zuzanna Fuchs, Emma Kealey, Esra Eldem-Tunç, Leo Mermelstein, Linh Pham, Anna Runova, Yue Chen, Metehan Oğuz, Seoyoon Hong, Catherine Pan and JK Subramony

Languages 2025, 10(8), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080189 - 4 Aug 2025

Abstract

The present study analyzes individual differences in the facilitative processing of grammatical gender by heritage speakers of Spanish, asking whether these differences correlate with lexical proficiency. Results from an eye-tracking study in the Visual World Paradigm replicate prior findings that, as a group, [...] Read more.

The present study analyzes individual differences in the facilitative processing of grammatical gender by heritage speakers of Spanish, asking whether these differences correlate with lexical proficiency. Results from an eye-tracking study in the Visual World Paradigm replicate prior findings that, as a group, heritage speakers of Spanish show facilitative processing of gender. Importantly, in a follow-up within-group analysis, we test whether three measures of lexical proficiency—oral picture-naming, verbal fluency, and LexTALE—predict individual performance. We find that lexical proficiency, as measured by LexTALE, predicts overall word recognition; however, we observe no effects of the other measures and no evidence that lexical proficiency modulates the strength of the facilitative effect. Our results highlight the importance of carefully selecting tools for proficiency assessment in experimental studies involving heritage speakers, underscoring that the absence of evidence for an effect of proficiency based on a single measure should not be taken as evidence of absence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)

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30 pages, 941 KB

Open AccessArticle

Language Contact and Population Contact as Sources of Dialect Similarity

by Jonathan Dunn and Sidney Wong

Languages 2025, 10(8), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080188 - 31 Jul 2025

Abstract

This paper creates a global similarity network between city-level dialects of English in order to determine whether external factors like the amount of population contact or language contact influence dialect similarity. While previous computational work has focused on external influences that contribute to [...] Read more.

This paper creates a global similarity network between city-level dialects of English in order to determine whether external factors like the amount of population contact or language contact influence dialect similarity. While previous computational work has focused on external influences that contribute to phonological or lexical similarity, this paper focuses on grammatical variation as operationalized in computational construction grammar. Social media data was used to create comparable English corpora from 256 cities across 13 countries. Each sample is represented using the type frequency of various constructions. These frequency representations are then used to calculate pairwise similarities between city-level dialects; a prediction-based evaluation shows that these similarity values are highly accurate. Linguistic similarity is then compared with four external factors: (i) the amount of air travel between cities, a proxy for population contact, (ii) the difference in the linguistic landscapes of each city, a proxy for language contact, (iii) the geographic distance between cities, and (iv) the presence of political boundaries separating cities. The results show that, while all these factors are significant, the best model relies on language contact and geographic distance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialectal Dynamics)

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27 pages, 618 KB

Open AccessArticle

On Pragmatics Functions of Hacer de Cuenta: A Study of Its Development in the 20th and 21st Centuries in Mexican Spanish

by Josaphat Enrique Guillén Escamilla and Adriana Belén Jiménez Vega

Languages 2025, 10(8), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080187 - 30 Jul 2025

Abstract

In the Hispanic world, the analysis of discourse particles from a microdiachronic perspective has emerged as a relatively recent area of research that has already demonstrated its efficacy, particularly in the context of Spain. However, in the case of Mexico, this type of [...] Read more.

In the Hispanic world, the analysis of discourse particles from a microdiachronic perspective has emerged as a relatively recent area of research that has already demonstrated its efficacy, particularly in the context of Spain. However, in the case of Mexico, this type of study is still marginal. The objective of this paper is to analyze hacer de cuenta in Mexican Spanish during the 20th and 21st centuries to illustrate its processes of grammaticalization and pragmatization. To this end, a comprehensive analysis of the CREA and CORDE corpora, as well as six corpora of Mexican Spanish, was conducted. This methodological approach was proposed for three reasons. Firstly, it facilitated the acquisition of a diverse sample of examples. Secondly, it ensured the inclusion of corpora from different decades. Thirdly, it obtained examples that approximate orality. The findings suggest that during this period, hacer de cuenta was undergoing a process of pragmatization. Consequently, it can be regarded as a discourse particle that primarily encodes an intersubjective value, through which the speaker attempts to share with the interlocutor the way she/he conceptualizes a particular event. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pragmatic Diachronic Study of the 20th Century)

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24 pages, 3005 KB

Open AccessArticle

“Not gonna lie, that’s a real bummer”—The Usualization of the Pragmatic Marker not gonna lie

by Nicole Benker

Languages 2025, 10(8), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080186 - 29 Jul 2025

Abstract

This study is concerned with the formal and functional development of the pragmatic marker not gonna lie. It comprises a detailed investigation into the usage and development of not gonna lie in American English. This study shows that not gonna lie develops [...] Read more.

This study is concerned with the formal and functional development of the pragmatic marker not gonna lie. It comprises a detailed investigation into the usage and development of not gonna lie in American English. This study shows that not gonna lie develops from the clause NP BE not going to lie to NP. From its earliest attestations onward, the marker occurs in contexts carrying face threats, which points towards face-threat mitigation as its main function. This discourse function can only be observed for variants with first-person subjects and you in the prepositional phrase (if present). The later omission of elements through the course of the development indicates an increase in syntactic autonomy. The remaining chunk, not gonna lie, leaves little room for variability and is dominated by its discursive function. The findings are interpreted through the lens of usualization as described in the Entrenchment-and-Conventionalization Model. This dynamic, usage-based and cognitive model of language use and change lends itself to providing a fine-grained description and explanation of the grammaticalization-like processes observed in this case study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Discourse Marker Research)

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