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Languages

Languages is an international, multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed, open access journal on interdisciplinary studies of languages published monthly online by MDPI. The European Society for Transcultural and Interdisciplinary Dialogue (ESTIDIA) is affiliated with Languages and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), ERIH Plus, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Linguistics) / CiteScore - Q1 (Language and Linguistics)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 56.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 10.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 0.9 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-471X

Latest Articles

39 pages, 541 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Manner Modification from a Cross-Dependency Perspective

by Norbert Corver

Languages 2025, 10(5), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050088 - 23 Apr 2025

This article aims to increase our understanding of the syntax of manner modification by examining it from the perspective of the syntax of anaphoric dependencies. It is proposed that the two grammatical dependencies share certain abstract formal properties and are governed by the [...] Read more.

This article aims to increase our understanding of the syntax of manner modification by examining it from the perspective of the syntax of anaphoric dependencies. It is proposed that the two grammatical dependencies share certain abstract formal properties and are governed by the same type of principle governing the computational system of human language. Building on the so-called IDI constraint (Inability to Distinguish Indistinguishables), it is proposed that the Computational system of Human Language (C_HL) is unable to distinguish two predicates—for example, a verbal predicate and an adjectival one—if they are in a local domain. Specifically, an adjectival predicate (e.g., quick) cannot merge directly with a verbal predicate (e.g., walk). The C_HL can only deal with two predicates if their linguistic environment allows them to be distinguished as different occurrences. This formal distinctness can be achieved by means of various licensing strategies, including so-called protection, which is a formal strategy that turns the modifier (e.g., quick) into a more complex syntactic object (e.g., quick+-ly). It is shown that the various morpho-syntactic implementations of the protection strategy are quite similar for Rreflexivization and for Manner Modification: (grammaticalized) body nouns, doubling pronouns, and adpositional material can be used for making the dependent element (i.e., the anaphor; the manner modifier) more complex. It is further proposed that superficially bare manner modifiers (e.g., fast) are actually complex syntactic objects, where the complexity comes from the (hidden) presence of a silent element. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mind Your Manner Adverbials!)

25 pages, 394 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Identity for Social Justice: Insights from Multilingual Speakers of English in Malaysia and Singapore

by Yong Ern Amy Leow, Meng Huat Chau and Baramee Kheovichai

Languages 2025, 10(5), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050087 - 23 Apr 2025

While it has been pointed out that identity is complex, unfixed and intersectional in nature, many studies tend to be restricted by their very conceptualisation of identity, which projects a sense of purism and essentialism rooted in Global North epistemologies. In this article, [...] Read more.

While it has been pointed out that identity is complex, unfixed and intersectional in nature, many studies tend to be restricted by their very conceptualisation of identity, which projects a sense of purism and essentialism rooted in Global North epistemologies. In this article, we consider the concept of (diasporic) identity and discuss how labels and categories of identity often prescribed to a community can and should be deconstructed for social justice purposes. We demonstrate this by examining the translanguaging practices of six Malaysian and Singaporean speakers of English in relation to their identity perception and construction. Although these multilingual speakers seemed to regard their use of multiple languages as fixed and bounded, they all showed, to varying degrees, a flexible languaging approach. The findings also suggested a defiance of expected categories of identity defined by the Global North, such as racialised language use and diasporic identity. We suggest that these prescriptive named categories are not useful in describing identities and question the labels and categories used to construct ‘identity’. We conclude by arguing for an ‘oceanic’ approach to identity, one that emphasises the fluidity, interconnectedness and boundless potential of identity to challenge oppressive structures and contribute to a more just and equitable world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Discourse and Identity in the Diverse and Evolving Varieties of Southeast Asian Englishes)

17 pages, 1503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Language Experience on Speech Perception: Heritage Spanish Speaker Perception of Contrastive and Allophonic Consonants

by Amanda Boomershine and Keith Johnson

Languages 2025, 10(5), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050086 - 23 Apr 2025

It is well known that a listener’s native phonological background has an impact on how speech sounds are perceived. Native speakers can distinguish sounds that serve a contrastive function in their language better than sounds that are not contrastive. However, the role of [...] Read more.

It is well known that a listener’s native phonological background has an impact on how speech sounds are perceived. Native speakers can distinguish sounds that serve a contrastive function in their language better than sounds that are not contrastive. However, the role of allophony in speech perception is understudied, especially among heritage speakers. This paper highlights a study that directly tests the influence of the allophonic/phonemic distinction on perception by Spanish heritage speakers, comparing their results to those of late bilingual and monolingual speakers of Spanish and English in the US. Building on an earlier study, the unique contribution of this paper is a study of the perceptual pattern shown by heritage speakers of Spanish and a comparison of bilingual and monolingual speakers of English and Spanish. The participants completed a similarity rating task with stimuli containing VCV sequences with the intervocalic consonants [d], [ð], and [ɾ]. The heritage speakers, who are early sequential bilinguals of Spanish and English, showed a perceptual pattern that is more like monolingual Spanish listeners than monolingual English listeners, but still intermediate between the two monolingual groups. Specifically, they perceived [d]/[ɾ] like the L1 Spanish participants, treating them as very different sounds. They perceived the pair [d]/[ð], which is contrastive in English but allophonic in Spanish, like the L1 Spanish participants, as fairly similar sounds. Finally, heritage speakers perceived [ɾ]/[ð], contrastive in both languages, as very different sounds, identical to all other participant groups. The results underscore both the importance of surface oppositions, suggesting the need to reconsider the traditional definition of contrast, as well as the importance of considering level and age of exposure to the second language when studying the perception of sounds by bilingual speakers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phonetics and Phonology of Ibero-Romance Languages)

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18 pages, 1892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Breaking Down Greek Nominal Stems: Theme and Nominalizer Exponents

by Giorgos Markopoulos

Languages 2025, 10(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040085 - 17 Apr 2025

This article focuses on the right edge of nominal stems in Greek and aims to show that stem-final segments should be analyzed as distinct morphological constituents. Two types of such constituents are identified. On the one hand, stem endings such as -a(ð) [...] Read more.

This article focuses on the right edge of nominal stems in Greek and aims to show that stem-final segments should be analyzed as distinct morphological constituents. Two types of such constituents are identified. On the one hand, stem endings such as -a(ð), -i(ð), and -a(t) have a predictable distribution, as they are found in nouns with specific morphosyntactic properties and stress patterns. On the other hand, stem endings like -o, -a, and -i cannot function as predictors of the morphosyntactic status of the noun, although they may convey information about its stress position. The distinction between the two constituent categories is captured through an analysis couched within Distributed Morphology. Specifically, it is proposed that stem endings of the first category function as nominalizer exponents, while those of the second category serve as exponents of a Theme node, which is inserted post-syntactically and bears no grammatical features. The allomorphic variation exhibited by these exponents is accounted for by means of a phonological analysis based on Gradient Harmonic Grammar. The proposed approach is shown to capture empirical generalizations that have been overlooked in traditional grammatical descriptions and theoretical analyses based on multiple stem allomorphs. Full article

17 pages, 1277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pragmatic Perception of Insult-Related Vocabulary in Spanish as L1 and L2: A Sociolinguistic Approach

by Raúl Fernández Jódar

Languages 2025, 10(4), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040084 - 16 Apr 2025

This study examines the perception of insult-related vocabulary in Spanish among native speakers (L1) and Polish learners of Spanish as a foreign language (L2). Insults are analyzed as versatile speech acts fulfilling pragmatic functions such as impoliteness, affiliation, and emphasis. Adopting a contrastive [...] Read more.

This study examines the perception of insult-related vocabulary in Spanish among native speakers (L1) and Polish learners of Spanish as a foreign language (L2). Insults are analyzed as versatile speech acts fulfilling pragmatic functions such as impoliteness, affiliation, and emphasis. Adopting a contrastive approach, this research evaluates perceptions of colloquialism and emotional intensity across three groups: learners without prior stays in Spanish-speaking countries, learners with prior stays, and L1 speakers. Data were collected through surveys assessing knowledge, recognition, and perception of selected insults related to intellect and sexuality. The findings reveal that insults associated with sexuality exhibit the highest perceived offensive load across all groups, while those linked to behavior and intellect are rated as less aggressive. Polish learners of Spanish, particularly those without cultural immersion, tend to overestimate the offensiveness of insults compared to L1 speakers. However, learners with prior stays align more closely with L1 perceptions, underscoring the impact of cultural exposure. The results highlight the pivotal role of context and interlanguage in shaping learners’ interpretations of offensive vocabulary. They also establish a foundation for further exploration into the acquisition and pragmatic use of colloquial and emotionally charged language in L2 learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Linguistic Boundaries: From the Acquisition of Languages to Multilingual Practices)

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20 pages, 1566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Speaker Accent and Listener Background on FL Learners’ Perceptions of Regional Italian Varieties

by Katherine Yaw and Tania Ferronato

Languages 2025, 10(4), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040083 - 15 Apr 2025

In today’s globalized world, foreign language (FL) communication is characterized by the presence of regional variations that can impact L2 learners’ speech perception in their target language. While it is essential for FL programs to prepare their students for real-world language variation, research [...] Read more.

In today’s globalized world, foreign language (FL) communication is characterized by the presence of regional variations that can impact L2 learners’ speech perception in their target language. While it is essential for FL programs to prepare their students for real-world language variation, research on learner perception of spoken regional varieties remains scarce, especially for less commonly taught languages, such as Italian. To address this, this study used a quantitative approach to explore to what extent listeners’ background factors (i.e., accent familiarity, contact with Italian speakers, heritage learner status, L1) and speaker accent impact FL learners’ perceptions of (1) intelligibility, (2) comprehensibility, and (3) acceptability of regionally accented Italian speech. A total of forty-seven FL learners of Italian listened to the speech of six Italian native speakers with different regional accents (two each from Northern, Central, and Southern Italy), rated them for comprehensibility and acceptability, and transcribed utterances for intelligibility. Mixed-effects models revealed statistically significant effects of speaker accent and listener L1 background on all three perceptual constructs. Additionally, greater contact corresponded with higher comprehensibility, while heritage learners rated speech as less acceptable for educational contexts. Listeners’ overall positive perception of regionally accented speech encourages the introduction of authentic spoken varieties in the FL classroom. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue L2 Speech Perception and Production in the Globalized World)

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20 pages, 2909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Acoustic Properties of Vowels in Foreigner-Directed Speech: Insights from Speech Directed at Foreign Domestic Helpers

by Azza Al-Kendi

Languages 2025, 10(4), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040082 - 14 Apr 2025

This study examines the acoustic properties of vowels in foreigner-directed speech (FDS) in interactions between female Omani-Arabic-speaking employers and their foreign domestic helpers (FDHs). Particularly, it investigates whether Arabic corner vowels /i:/, /a:/, and /u:/ undergo acoustic adaptations in FDS. The study also [...] Read more.

This study examines the acoustic properties of vowels in foreigner-directed speech (FDS) in interactions between female Omani-Arabic-speaking employers and their foreign domestic helpers (FDHs). Particularly, it investigates whether Arabic corner vowels /i:/, /a:/, and /u:/ undergo acoustic adaptations in FDS. The study also explores the influence of foreign interlocutors’ psycholinguistic characteristics, such as degree of foreign accent, religion, and length of residence (LoR), on the extent of these adaptations. Data were collected from 22 Omani-Arabic-speaking women interacting with their 22 FDHs and with a native speaker (NS) confederate using a spot-the-difference task. Acoustic measures including vowel space area, formant frequency measures (F1 and F2), fundamental frequency (f0), intensity, and duration were compared across speech directed at FDHs and the NS. The results revealed that FDS exhibited greater vowel space expansion, higher F1, and increased pitch (f0) and intensity compared to speech directed at the NS confederate. However, FDS did not significantly affect F2 values. Unexpectedly, vowel duration in FDS was shorter than in speech directed at the NS. Furthermore, the psycholinguistic factors of foreign interlocutors had no significant effect on vowel space expansion in FDS. These findings provide evidence that FDS is characterized by heightened prosodic and acoustic features, potentially contributing to clearer speech. Additionally, the study highlights that NSs employ FDS when interacting with foreigners perceived to have a foreign accent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue An Acoustic Analysis of Vowels)

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4 pages, 171 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Vocabulary Studies in L1 and L2 Development: The Interface Between Theory and Practice

by Jon Clenton, Gavin Brooks and Batia Laufer

Languages 2025, 10(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040081 - 10 Apr 2025

The field of vocabulary studies in first language (L1) and second language (L2) development has seen remarkable growth in recent years, with researchers and practitioners alike recognizing the critical role that lexical knowledge plays in language proficiency [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vocabulary Studies in L1 and L2 Development: The Interface between Theory and Practice)

20 pages, 747 KiB

Open AccessReview

Quantifying Experience with Accented Speech to Study Monolingual and Bilingual School-Aged Children’s Speech Processing

by Adriana Hanulíková and Helena Levy

Languages 2025, 10(4), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040080 - 9 Apr 2025

Children around the world often grow up with multiple language varieties and are exposed to regional and second-language accents. This linguistic heterogeneity presents both benefits and challenges for cognitive and language development. Recognizing the importance of input variability in theories of language processing, [...] Read more.

Children around the world often grow up with multiple language varieties and are exposed to regional and second-language accents. This linguistic heterogeneity presents both benefits and challenges for cognitive and language development. Recognizing the importance of input variability in theories of language processing, researchers are now using more nuanced assessments of language experience that go beyond simple ‘monolingual’ versus ‘bilingual’ categories. These assessment methods capture the gradient nature of language exposure and use. This article provides a narrative review of recent research on the role of different accents and languages in children’s environments. It emphasizes the importance of applying gradient assessments of accent variation to both bilingual and monolingual populations. In doing so, a more comprehensive understanding of speech processing in heterogeneous contexts among school-aged children can be achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends and Future Directions in Bilingual Language Acquisition)

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18 pages, 294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Latvian Vocative and Other Case Forms in Direct Address Constructions

by Andra Kalnača and Ilze Lokmane

Languages 2025, 10(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040079 - 9 Apr 2025

This article is devoted to the study of syntactic and pragmatic functions of the vocative and direct address constructions. Since the direct address in Latvian, in addition to the vocative, also permits the nominative and accusative, this article examines the relationships and conditions [...] Read more.

This article is devoted to the study of syntactic and pragmatic functions of the vocative and direct address constructions. Since the direct address in Latvian, in addition to the vocative, also permits the nominative and accusative, this article examines the relationships and conditions of use of these three cases depending on the noun declension. In Latvian, the vocative (and nominative and accusative used in the function of direct address) is also variously agreed with its attached nominal (noun, adjective, declinable participle) or pronoun, so in order to better understand the syntax and pragmatics of the direct address in Latvian, this article covers this issue as well. The analysis of the data shows that there are five possible pragmatic functions of direct address in Latvian. The choice of these functions is operated, taking into account the place (of the address) in the clause or text, the lexemes used, and various extra-linguistic factors. Full article

21 pages, 2829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aspectual Variation in Negated Past Tense Contexts Across Slavic

by Dorota Klimek-Jankowska, Alberto Frasson and Piotr Gulgowski

Languages 2025, 10(4), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040078 - 8 Apr 2025

This study examines variation in the use and interpretation of the perfective (pfv) aspect in negated past tense contexts across East Slavic and selected West and Southwest Slavic languages. Unlike West and Southwest Slavic, where the pfv + neg in past [...] Read more.

This study examines variation in the use and interpretation of the perfective (pfv) aspect in negated past tense contexts across East Slavic and selected West and Southwest Slavic languages. Unlike West and Southwest Slavic, where the pfv + neg in past tense contexts allows for an interpretation denying the existence of the event at any past time, East Slavic uniquely interprets the pfv aspect in these contexts as indicating that the agent either planned but failed to realize the event or initiated it but failed to complete it. We account for this by assuming that negation operates either high (¬TP), as sentential negation, or low (¬vP), over the event domain. In East Slavic, the interaction of the pfv aspect with the past tense prevents high negation and enforces low negation, resulting in inhibited event reading. This reading implies that the event was expected or initiated but ultimately unrealized. We argue that the semantics of the pfv aspect in East Slavic parallels the semantics of specific indefinites in the nominal domain. The aspect head introduces a temporal variable t, which, via a choice function, restricts the domain of existential quantification over t to a singleton set, presupposing the existence of t, which cannot be canceled by high negation. Consequently, in negated pfv past tense contexts in East Slavic, negation scopes over the event domain giving rise to special interpretative constraints in past tense perfective contexts with negation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb: Analogies in Different Languages and Other Grammatical Domains)

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24 pages, 335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Syntactic Variation and Sociocultural Identity in Southeast Asian Englishes: A Study of Subjectless Nonfinite Clauses in Philippine and Singaporean English

by Teri An Joy Magpale and Ramsey Ferrer

Languages 2025, 10(4), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040077 - 4 Apr 2025

This study explores syntactic variation and sociocultural identity in subjectless nonfinite clauses within Philippine English (PhE) and Singaporean English (SgE), focusing on to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions. Using data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), it [...] Read more.

This study explores syntactic variation and sociocultural identity in subjectless nonfinite clauses within Philippine English (PhE) and Singaporean English (SgE), focusing on to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions. Using data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), it examines the distribution of these constructions across spoken and written registers to uncover their sociocultural underpinnings. The findings reveal a shared preference for to-infinitive constructions in both varieties, reflecting their role in expressing intention and purpose. PhE’s adherence to prescriptive norms stems from colonial history and formal education, while SgE’s multilingual and pragmatic linguistic ecology fosters greater syntactic flexibility, exemplified by the innovative want + -ing construction absent in PhE. Although gerunds are less frequent overall, they consistently occur with verbs like enjoy in both varieties, signaling habitual or ongoing actions. Sociolinguistic distinctions also emerge in constructions like [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause, where PhE employs elaborative commentary aligned with its expressive narrative tendencies, contrasting with SgE’s concise, context-driven usage. By investigating this underexplored syntactic phenomenon, the study demonstrates how localized Englishes adapt grammatical structures to reflect sociocultural priorities, advancing the understanding of World Englishes and their sociolinguistic diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Discourse and Identity in the Diverse and Evolving Varieties of Southeast Asian Englishes)

1 pages, 206 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Lefort (2024). Altaic Elements in the Chinese Variety of Tangwang: True and False Direct Loans. Languages, 9(9), 293

by Julie Pauline Marie Lefort

Languages 2025, 10(4), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040076 - 3 Apr 2025

The author has requested to make the following corrections to their original publication [...] Full article

20 pages, 1878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“I Want to Be Born with That Pronunciation”: Metalinguistic Comments About K-Pop Idols’ Inner Circle Accents

by Jihye Kim and Luoxiangyu Zhang

Languages 2025, 10(4), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040075 - 3 Apr 2025

The Korean popular music (K-pop) industry, with its global popularity and increasing multilingual orientation, serves as a suitable context for exploring language perceptions. This research examines the metalinguistic commentary on K-pop idols’ English accents on YouTube. Specifically, we investigate how online users evaluate [...] Read more.

The Korean popular music (K-pop) industry, with its global popularity and increasing multilingual orientation, serves as a suitable context for exploring language perceptions. This research examines the metalinguistic commentary on K-pop idols’ English accents on YouTube. Specifically, we investigate how online users evaluate the idols’ English accents and how their metalinguistic comments communicate linguistic ideologies that favor a “native” way of speaking. Our dataset consists of 602 metalinguistic comments drawn from four popular YouTube videos featuring the evaluation of K-pop idols’ accents. We employ content analysis to first categorize comments into positive, negative, and neutral evaluations, then focus on aspects being evaluated in the users’ comments (e.g., social attractiveness and (non-)nativeness). The results indicate that a vast majority of comments (88.1%) convey positive evaluations, largely associating the idols’ accents with social appeal and native-like accents. Although a few neutral and negative evaluations exist, our result shows a dominant preference for inner circle accents and complex attitudes toward accented speech in digital spaces. We conclude by highlighting the influence of digital platforms in shaping language perceptions and the implications for linguistic stereotyping in the context of K-pop culture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue L2 Speech Perception and Production in the Globalized World)

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37 pages, 458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of German Preverbs in Clausal Selection Properties

by Barbara Stiebels

Languages 2025, 10(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040074 - 2 Apr 2025

One aspect of clausal embedding that has not received any specific attention in the literature is the question of whether and how derivational morphology may affect clausal selection properties of the respective bases. In this paper, I will focus on the role of [...] Read more.

One aspect of clausal embedding that has not received any specific attention in the literature is the question of whether and how derivational morphology may affect clausal selection properties of the respective bases. In this paper, I will focus on the role of German preverbs for clausal embedding. I will show that any parameter of clausal embedding can be affected by a preverb, though sometimes in a non-compositional way. Preverbs may affect presuppositions and entailments of their base verb, their selectional behavior with respect to clause types, their status as control or raising predicate and their potential for restructuring. Furthermore, preverbs may license or block neg-raising. The first part of the paper is dedicated to the demonstration of these effects with no specific preverb in mind. The second part discusses three specific preverb patterns with zu- ‘to’, ein- ‘in’ and er-, showing their specific clausal complementation properties. Preverbs influence clausal complementation by their impact on the argument structure/realization (in the case of control and restructuring) and on the lexical aspect of the base (in the case of certain interrogative complements and neg-raising). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb: Analogies in Different Languages and Other Grammatical Domains)

18 pages, 348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acquisition of Variation in the Use of alors, donc, fait que by Advanced French-as-a-Second-Language Learners in Ontario, Canada

by Françoise Mougeon, Raymond Mougeon and Katherine Rehner

Languages 2025, 10(4), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040073 - 1 Apr 2025

This study examines the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation in the use of French connectors alors/donc/fait que ‘so’ by two groups of advanced French-as-a-second language (FL2) learners in Ontario: (i) high school French Immersion (FI) students and (ii) university students. It considers two types [...] Read more.

This study examines the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation in the use of French connectors alors/donc/fait que ‘so’ by two groups of advanced French-as-a-second language (FL2) learners in Ontario: (i) high school French Immersion (FI) students and (ii) university students. It considers two types of functions fulfilled by these connectors: (i) the grammatical function of expressing consequence between two clauses and (ii) a range of discursive functions, a dual focus not present in previous research, which considered only one or the other of these two types of functions. Our study shows that: (i) although these two FL2 groups’ use of the connectors is distant from the norms of FL1 speech, the university students achieve a more advanced level of acquisition of this case of variation than do the FI students, reflecting the positive effect of continued learning of French at the postsecondary level; (ii) ‘level of opportunities to interact in French with native speakers’ has a greater positive impact on the acquisition of alors/donc/fait que than ‘time spent learning French’; and (iii) both groups of students evidence incomplete acquisition of the linguistic constraints of connector choice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

23 pages, 3119 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Linguistic Syntactic Priming in Late Bilinguals of Levantine Arabic (L1) and English (L2)

by Jamal A. Khlifat and Pui Fong Kan

Languages 2025, 10(4), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040072 - 1 Apr 2025

This study investigates the cross-linguistic priming effect in the syntactic written output of late bilingual Levantine Arabic speakers who learn English as a second language. In particular, we examined priming sentence type (simple vs. complex sentences) and priming language condition (Levantine Arabic vs. [...] Read more.

This study investigates the cross-linguistic priming effect in the syntactic written output of late bilingual Levantine Arabic speakers who learn English as a second language. In particular, we examined priming sentence type (simple vs. complex sentences) and priming language condition (Levantine Arabic vs. English). Forty-nine bilinguals (Mean age = 33.3, SD = 8.5), who learned Levantine Arabic as their L1 and English as their L2, were primed with a short paragraph presented on the computer screen in either English or Levantine Arabic and asked to produce a written response in the counterpart language. Logistic regression analysis revealed a significant cross-linguistic priming effect, suggesting that the syntactic structure of the prime in the participants’ first language (Levantine Arabic) predicts the participants’ written output in the second language (English), and the reverse is also true. However, there was no significant effect of priming sentence type (simple vs. complex) on the likelihood of producing primed res ponses, indicating that both priming conditions yielded similar levels of priming. In contrast, there was a significant effect of the priming language condition, with participants significantly more likely to produce syntactically primed responses when the priming language was Arabic compared to English. In addition, there was a significant interaction between the priming language condition and priming sentence type: Arabic priming led to more simple sentence production in English, whereas English priming did not significantly affect sentence complexity in Arabic. These findings align with the shared syntax account but highlight the need to consider factors such as language dominance in bilingual syntactic processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adult and Child Sentence Processing When Reading or Writing)

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42 pages, 23224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GIF You’re Happy and You Know It: Reaction GIFs and Images in a Gay Male Twitter Community of Practice

by Caolan O’Neill

Languages 2025, 10(4), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040071 - 30 Mar 2025

Reaction GIFs and reaction images appear as common multimodal linguistic objects in digitally mediated communication. While past research has tended to focus on the paralinguistic functions of these communicative devices, less attention has been paid to how these digital tools enable their users [...] Read more.

Reaction GIFs and reaction images appear as common multimodal linguistic objects in digitally mediated communication. While past research has tended to focus on the paralinguistic functions of these communicative devices, less attention has been paid to how these digital tools enable their users to strategically enact and embody particular social identities on social media. This article offers a stance-based computer-mediated discourse analysis of a small, gay UK- and Ireland-based Twitter community of practice. Through qualitative analyses of the eight members’ tweets containing reaction GIFs and images (n = 991), as well as their responses to an online survey, this article demonstrates how these self-identified gay men construct four distinct feminine-coded personae: the Sassy Queen, the Hun, the Battle-Axe and the Flamboyant Queer. Each persona exhibits linguistic (e.g., features from British English or African American Language) or stance-based collocations. This analysis identifies common qualities or traits that all four personae possess that these Twitter users may identify with or value, potentially motivating their recurrent constructions. The ability of these non-traditional linguistic resources to conduct identity work is discussed. More broadly, this study foregrounds the significance of social media as a series of digital platforms where online identities are continually developed, (co-)constructed and negotiated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Linguistics of Social Media)

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26 pages, 449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysing Dutch Present Participle Manner Adverbials

by Lex Cloin-Tavenier

Languages 2025, 10(4), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040070 - 28 Mar 2025

As recent research has shown, MAs cross-linguistically show signs of a complex internal structure which can consist of a diverse set of syntactic categories. Notably absent from previously studied MA patterns are those that, at first impression, appear to contain verbal substructure. This [...] Read more.

As recent research has shown, MAs cross-linguistically show signs of a complex internal structure which can consist of a diverse set of syntactic categories. Notably absent from previously studied MA patterns are those that, at first impression, appear to contain verbal substructure. This raises the question whether or not the category V is among the diverse syntactic categories that feature in the grammar of MAs. In this study, I take a closer look at Dutch MAs that appear to contain a present participle -end form of the verb, like lopend ‘by walking’ or spelenderwijs ‘playfully’. Using tests for verbal substructure, I expand on findings from previous literature that show Dutch -erwijs adverbials do not contain verbal substructure by showing that Dutch present participle MAs without -erwijs also lack verbal substructure. Instead, the adjectival -end form is argued to enter into a small clause structure as a predicate over a manner noun to account for the manner reading of Dutch present participle MAs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mind Your Manner Adverbials!)

19 pages, 1689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Variation in the Amplifier System Among Chinese L2 English Speakers in Australia

by Minghao Miao and Chloé Diskin-Holdaway

Languages 2025, 10(4), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040069 - 28 Mar 2025

This study investigates the English adjective amplifier system of eleven Mandarin Chinese L2 speakers of English residing in Australia compared to a sample of ten native Australian English (AusE) speakers from the AusTalk corpus. Employing a variationist framework, we find that the L2 [...] Read more.

This study investigates the English adjective amplifier system of eleven Mandarin Chinese L2 speakers of English residing in Australia compared to a sample of ten native Australian English (AusE) speakers from the AusTalk corpus. Employing a variationist framework, we find that the L2 speakers employ a markedly overall higher rate (50.2%) of use of adjective amplifiers than AusE speakers (34.8%). This has been shown to be a common phenomenon among L2 speakers, who have a smaller range of adjectives at their disposal, and thus “over-use” amplifiers. However, we also argue that the propensity for amplifier–adjective bigrams in Mandarin Chinese transfers to their L2 English. The results show that Chinese L2 speakers use very more than really, whereas really is more frequent than very in AusE, suggesting that the L2 speakers may be lagging behind in this previously-reported change in AusE. The results also show that higher rates of English proficiency and length of residence in Australia result in more Australian-like amplifier behavior among the Chinese L2 group. The present paper can provide meaningful insights for future language teaching and learning in classroom and naturalistic settings, revealing potential for the instruction of more authentic language among L2 English learners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

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