Preserving the Latvian Language Abroad: Personal Narratives and Institutional Support

Abstract

Despite the widespread distribution of Latvians globally, the importance of heritage language for cultural connectivity remains underexplored. This study explores the preservation of the Latvian language among diaspora communities, employing linguistic autoethnography, participant observation, and communication analysis to examine the interplay between individual experiences and institutional support in maintaining cultural identity. Drawing from the author’s bilingual Latvian–Lithuanian background and based on the example of a mixed Latvian–Lithuanian family living in Finland, the study highlights the role of the family strategy in using languages at home, the role of grandparents, as well as heritage tourism, music, and arts in strengthening cultural ties. Through linguistic autoethnography, the article captures the essence of personal and collective efforts to sustain the Latvian language. Participant observation in diasporan activities and analysis of communicative practices reveal how diasporan Latvians actively engage in preserving their linguistic heritage. The Latvian Language Agency’s initiatives, including supporting language schools abroad, publishing educational resources, and organizing summer camps, are critically examined. The study advocates for a unified approach that combines personal commitment and structured support, emphasizing the crucial role of both in the vibrancy of the Latvian language abroad.

1. Introduction

In the ever-evolving tapestry of global migration and cultural exchange, the preservation of heritage languages stands as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of human communities. This article explores the multifaceted efforts of maintaining the Latvian language outside its native borders, a pursuit that intertwines the personal with the collective, the local with the global. This exploration is not just about linguistic preservation; it is a narrative of identity, cultural continuity, and the intricate dance between adaptation and retention.

The history of the Republic of Latvia and the formation of diasporas in connection with it are very close intertwined. Not delving into details of the history of the country, it is useful to mention briefly such facts as during World War I and the Russian civil war, around one million of Latvia’s residents moved to other territories (mostly in Russia); in 1918, the independent Latvian state was created, and over the next 10 years, around 300,000 people returned to Latvia (Hazans 2019, p. 39); World War II and the occupation by Germany from 1941 to 1945 must also be mentioned, as well as the Soviet occupation in 1940–1941 and from 1945 till 1990. In the last year of the Second World War, about 170–180,000 Latvian residents went west across the Baltic Sea to neutral Sweden (about 5000), and the great majority south—to Germany. After the war, according to some estimates, 120–150,000 refugees in the Western occupation zones decided to stay in Western countries and, over time, began to consider themselves exiles (Plakans 2024). The next stage—the ‘great dispersion’ of Western Latvians—began in 1946. By 1951, the vast majority of Latvians had left Europe; the main destinations were the USA (about 45,000), Australia (about 21,000), and Canada (about 13,000) (Plakans, Idem). After the restoration of the independence of Latvia, a new wave of emigration—especially starting from 2006 to 2007—from Latvia to the countries of the European Union, led to the concept of diaspora in official discourses regarding all Latvians living abroad.

There are groups of Latvian people living in various countries outside of Latvia itself. These communities may vary in size and composition, but they typically consist of Latvian expatriates, descendants of Latvian immigrants, or individuals with strong ties to Latvian culture and heritage (Meija 2005; Pranka et al. 2021). According to the data of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia, more than 420,000 representatives of the Latvian diaspora live, study, and work outside of Latvia, The Latvian diaspora includes compatriots who left the territory of Latvia in several waves of emigration since the end of the 19th century, including Latvian nationals who left during the recent emigration and who maintain ties with Latvia. Currently, the largest Latvian communities live in Great Britain, the USA, Canada, Ireland, Sweden, Australia, Russia, Brazil, Germany, Belgium, Israel, Norway, and Spain, as well as other countries in the world (MFA n.d.).

This article investigates the importance of preserving the Latvian language among diaspora communities, supported by both personal experiences and institutional efforts. Rooted in the author’s bilingual upbringing with Latvian and Lithuanian influences, the narrative underscores the importance of linguistic heritage in shaping individual identities. Through stories from various individuals, the article highlights efforts to retain the Latvian language across generations. Complementing these personal stories, the role of the Latvian Language Agency is explored. The agency actively supports small Latvian language schools abroad, publishes a range of teaching aids and study books, and organizes summer camps for both teachers and children. Emphasizing its contributions through these initiatives and its educational manuals and resources, the article advocates for a harmonious blend of personal commitment and structured support to ensure the Latvian language’s continued vibrancy abroad.

There are many studies on Latvian communities around the world, on the migration after World War II and when in exile at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century (Jaunzems and Brown 1972; Putniņš 1979; Kalniņš and Dreifelds 1990; Priedkalns 1994; Dreifelds 1996; Gilbert 2002; Beķere 2018; Hazans 2019; Kaprāns 2019; etc.), and the situation of the language’s preservation, highlighting the role of ethnic schools (Feather and Rudzītis 1974; Koroļeva et al. 2021). The research always paid attention to the festivals of singing and dancing and their importance in preserving identity as a way of returning to the motherland (Carpenter 1996; Ekmanis 2016). Among other hints, it was mentioned that heritage tourism has the potential to bolster indigenous language and culture, as visiting the country of your ancestors offers the opportunity to learn the language, contribute to the upkeep of historic sites, and engage in research and dissemination of the country’s history (Kaupins et al. 2009). Music, especially choral, and visual arts play a crucial role in forming a cultural identity (Grizzard 2019; Pourchier-Plasseraud 2015). Latvian educologists have also studied and described the difficulties and specifics of learning Latvian as a second language (i.e., Laiveniece 2016; Laiveniece and Lauze 2017; Tomme-Jukēvica 2020; Markus et al. 2023).

My personal experience, growing up in a Latvian–Lithuanian bilingual family, offers a unique perspective on this complex interplay. Children have a significant influence on language practices at home, often acting as language managers within families. This dynamic is evident in various contexts, including my own family, where our children, growing up in an international environment, play an active role in maintaining linguistic diversity. The practice of the home language in Latvian diaspora families starts with the parents’ belief that they are responsible for their children’s competence in their heritage language, eventually evolving into a belief in the value of the native language and other languages. Parents employ various language management strategies in communication with their children, such as consistent use of the native language and expecting the children to respond in the same language, illustrating a strategic balance between multiple languages within the family unit. This reflects the complexity of family language policy, which involves both conscious and unconscious planning of language use within families to maintain the Latvian language among their children in diverse linguistic environments (Martena 2023, pp. 85–6). According to Bissinger (2021, p. 30), who conducted research on Lithuanian family language use in Sweden, children’s activities significantly influence language practices at home. Children have a remarkable capacity to act as language managers within families. This observation is also true for my family, where our four children, growing up in an international environment in Finland, play a similar role.

2. Material and Method

The foundation of heritage language preservation most often lies within the family unit. As it is said in the theoretical literature, the family plays a crucial role in maintaining the Latvian language and identity. Parents are particularly significant in their children’s language learning and in recognizing the worth of the Latvian language (Pranka et al. 2021, pp. 38–39). In bilingual families, such as mine, where one parent is Lithuanian and the other Latvian, language policy at home plays a crucial role. Autoreflection, a process of self-examination and conscious decision making about language use, is vital. Families must deal with the complexities of imparting multiple languages to their children, ensuring that each language finds its space and relevance in daily life. The dynamics of language policy within a family can significantly influence the linguistic proficiency and cultural identity of its members. Circumstances have uniquely aligned such that Lithuanian–Latvian bilingualism can be passed on to the third generation. We regularly keep selective diary records of the speech of all four children in our family and sometimes record them on video. Additionally, the inclusion of other languages (English, Finnish, Russian) makes our family even more multilingual.

In my research, I analyse language policies of language maintenance as offered by specific societal institutions. In addition, I rely on methods of linguistic autoethnography (e.g., Adamson and Muller 2024; Filipovic 2019), participant observation (e.g., Tusting 2020), and communication analysis (e.g., Mustajoki and Baikulova 2022; Weigand and Kecskes 2018). My linguistic background and involvement in multilingual everyday family conversations allow me to explore my own experiences with language, culture, and identity, using personal narratives, observations, and reflections as data. It involves analysing how language shapes individuals’ perceptions, behaviors, and interactions within various social contexts.

These methodologies allow for an in-depth exploration of personal experiences, family interactions, and the broader societal context of language maintenance. The collected material includes detailed personal narratives and autobiographical reflections, offering insights into my own experiences growing up in a Latvian–Lithuanian bilingual family. These narratives highlight the complexities of language policy and maintenance within a multilingual family setting. Observational data from everyday family interactions are documented, providing real-time examples of language use and management strategies employed by family members. This includes how parents and children employ and balance multiple languages in their daily lives.

All family members agreed to participate in the study, contributing their perspectives through interviews and reflective discussions. These data capture the diverse experiences and attitudes towards language maintenance and use within the family. The material includes an analysis of various language management strategies used by parents and children. This involves examining specific practices, such as the consistent use of the heritage language, responses to language shifts, and the role of children in reinforcing language use. Communication analysis methods are applied to study interactions within the family, focusing on how language shapes perceptions, behaviors, and social interactions. This includes examining the influence of societal institutions on family language policies and maintenance strategies. The study employs linguistic autoethnography to explore how language, culture, and identity intersect in my own and my family’s experiences. This method provides a rich, first-person account of the challenges and strategies involved in maintaining heritage languages in a multilingual environment. Through these comprehensive methodological approaches and diverse data sources, the research provides important insights into the dynamics of heritage language preservation within bilingual and multilingual families.

3. Ethnic Identity in Multilingual Migrant Families

In the realm of social sciences, the intricate relationship between identity and various attitudes and behaviours stands as a central theme. Researchers focusing on identity (Ekmanis 2016; Hazans 2019, etc.) highlight its dynamic nature, emphasizing how it evolves and varies throughout an individual’ life. This is particularly evident in the context of migration, making identity formation among migrants a subject of keen interest for sociologists, anthropologists, and political scientists. In our modern world, characterized by rapid global processes and advanced technology, information can be accessed globally within seconds. People can relocate to a new country, immerse themselves in a different language, and adapt to a completely new cultural environment in a matter of hours. Such transitions often prompt individuals to reflect on their sense of belonging and identity. They find themselves contemplating the commonalities and distinctions between ‘us’ and ‘them’, and where the line is drawn between ‘our people’ and ‘the others’.

The transformation of a sense of belonging in the context of emigration has become a significant area of research. This is because the way individuals maintain their connection to their homeland, and how they develop new affiliations with their country of residence, greatly influences their integration success and decisions about settling permanently or returning home. Identity is a complex and ever-changing phenomenon. It is about how individuals perceive and define their relationships with the world and how these relationships evolve. Identity is a process, often more accurately described as ‘identification’. It is constructed through interactions with others, constantly being shaped and reshaped. As Laura Sūna (2019, p. 184) stated, “[…] concept ‘identity’ is used not in an essentialist sense as something static but rather in the sense of it being an on-going process of the articulation of elements from different discourses”. In addition, “the construction of cultural identity, therefore, is a continuous balance”; “[…] the individual adapts his or her identity all the time, depending on different social contexts and communication situations” (Sūna 2019, p. 185).

3.1. Community Engagement and Cultural Activities

Latvian communities abroad have been instrumental in fostering a sense of cultural identity. Activities such as folk music, dancing festivals, and language classes not only serve as platforms for language practice but also reinforce cultural bonds. These gatherings are more than just social events; they are incubators for language development, as highlighted in the works of Grizzard (2019) and Pourchier-Plasseraud (2015).

Knowledge of the heritage language is seen as a crucial part of their cultural capital and an important dimension of ethnic identity and belonging. The main factors affecting the use of the native or heritage language in the emigrant community include family and conversational languages at home, close relationships and active communication with relatives in Latvia, and participation in cultural events and activities in Latvian communities abroad. Regular participation in Latvian community activities is a significant activity for maintaining the Latvian language and identity. These activities are especially active in countries like Sweden (Pranka et al. 2021, pp. 19–20). The ethnicity of a spouse also plays an important role in the use of the Latvian language within the family. In families with both Latvian parents, the Latvian language is more commonly used, while the situation in ethnically mixed families may vary. Pranka et al. (2021, p. 55) states: “Nevertheless, as the research data show, the attitude of the non–Latvian spouse to Latvian language use in the family is more tolerant in families living in the Nordic countries, especially in Sweden, than it is in other host countries”. According to the data published by Mārtiņš Kaprāns (2019), the Emigrant Communities of Latvia survey of 2014 shows that only one-half of respondents in Great Britain speak Latvian at home; nearly one-third of respondents do not care whether their children speak Latvian (Kaprāns 2019, p. 127).

Latvian communities abroad engage in various activities to preserve their culture and foster a sense of cultural belonging and identity. A significant focus is placed on learning and using the Latvian language. This includes teaching children the Latvian language at home, attending Latvian schools or language classes, and using Latvian in daily conversations within the family. However, this is not so easy: we also attempted to find a school that could teach our older children in their native languages, but in the area of Finland where we lived, it was not possible to organize this for Latvian. Eventually, we found an option for Lithuanian.

The desire of emigrants to maintain their ethnic identity and mother tongue as a value may conflict, especially among the younger generation, with the desire to adapt to the dominant host country culture and language environment (Pranka et al. 2021, p. 38). Participation in cultural events and activities is a major way of preserving heritage. This includes singing in choirs, attending and organizing cultural events, and participating in traditional Latvian festivals and celebrations. Regular participation in community activities, where members of the Latvian diaspora come together, plays a crucial role. These gatherings often involve cultural sharing, traditional music, dance, and other forms of cultural expression. As illustrated by the example of my family, maintaining close relationships and active communication with relatives and friends in Latvia and Lithuania is crucial. This approach aids in staying connected with our cultural roots and keeping up-to-date with developments in our ‘motherland’/’fatherland’.

Another facet of maintaining national identity could be through engaging in tourism that focuses on national heritage. The paper by Kaupins et al. (2009) explores various aspects of Latvian heritage tourism, the role of the internet in preserving cultural identity, and the impact of heritage tourism on the Latvian community. The document notes that for many Latvians, being part of their ethnic group in the diaspora means more than possessing the nationality of the place where they grew up. This strong feeling of belonging is crucial in maintaining cultural identity away from their homeland. Latvian immigrants who were displaced after the Soviet Union’s invasion and occupation of Latvia in 1941 established their own community centres in cities like Indianapolis. These centres became hubs for various Latvian cultural programs, including schools, folk dancing, choir groups, and theatrical groups, which are vital for preserving and promoting Latvian culture and heritage abroad. Latvian heritage tourism associations participate in mutual cultural events throughout the year, such as New Year’s, Easter Egg Colouring, and St. John’s Day (Latv. Jāņi). These events help members learn about each other’s cultures while forming long-lasting friendships, thereby strengthening the sense of community and cultural identity. The Latvian Community Centre in Indianapolis, for example, has also integrated with other ethnic groups, hosting associations like the Estonian Society, Lithuanian Society, Polish, Swedish, and Scottish Associations. This integration shows the adaptability of the Latvian communities while maintaining their unique cultural traditions. Kaupins, Ray, and Berzins suggest that there is a greater emphasis among Baltic descendants on the maintenance of heritage and language versus rediscovering it. This indicates a proactive approach to preserving their cultural identity, including folklore, nationalism, and the continuation of traditions and language (Kaupins et al. 2009, p. 59).

In Finland, the society “Laivas”—association of Latvian-Finnish families—plays a pivotal role, akin to the activities of Latvian communities abroad as detailed in the US and Sweden, in preserving and nurturing Latvian cultural values. This society unites Latvian families as well as mixed families in Finland and offers a unique platform for its members and the wider Latvian diaspora to engage with their heritage, echoing the importance of cultural and language preservation highlighted in the documents. “Laivas” addresses a critical issue in the Latvian diaspora—strengthening the sense of belonging to Latvia and ensuring the preservation of national identity and fostering cultural identity through language and cultural practices.

The concerts and events organized by “Laivas”, much like the community gatherings and cultural events in the US, serve as a nexus for the Latvian diaspora in Finland, drawing people from various regions. These gatherings are not just social events but also vital opportunities for maintaining linguistic ties, as they encourage communication in Latvian, underscoring the significance of language in cultural identity preservation. For example, the Autumn Harvest Family Festival and Pancake Baking on Shrovetide (Meteņi). The association “Laivas“ has organized summer camps for children in Finland (Loima) for several years in a row. After the 2023 camp, there were very positive reviews from both parents and children: “We want to introduce children to Latvian culture in a more interesting way, from a different angle, as well as help strengthen the Latvian language for the participants”; “It’s a great opportunity to meet and be with other families. An opportunity for children to spend time outside their usual routine. Make new friends”; “We are very, very happy to meet other friends and meet new families. This is like a fulfilled, long-cherished dream”; “The children really enjoy the activities, and they have already made friends with whom they keep in touch throughout the year”; “We miss Latvia” (translation from Latvian—“Laivas” n.d.). However, it must be added that the success of such a local society requires active and enthusiastic leadership.

Moreover, “Laivas” extends its impact through collaboration with the Embassy of the Republic of Latvia in Finland, the Finnish-Latvian Friendship Association “Rozentāls-Seura”, and other organizations. This approach mirrors the strategies outlined in the article by Kaupins et al. (2009), where active community engagement and partnerships are key to effectively maintaining and celebrating Latvian heritage abroad. Such collaborative efforts ensure a wider reach and greater involvement, potentially attracting more Latvians in the diaspora, thereby strengthening their cultural bonds and identity, much like the initiatives described in the mentioned article by Kaupins et al. for fostering a sense of cultural identity among Latvian communities globally. Confirming what was said with the example of my family, we all try to participate in corpore in the events.

In Finland, the Latvian community is enriched by the presence of “Ziemeļmeita”, a choir, “Aurora”, a folk-dance group, and “MADteatteri”, a theatre troupe. These artistic groups are instrumental in sustaining social ties within the Finnish Latvian community and play a significant role in nurturing a connection to Latvia, thereby tackling a major challenge encountered by the diaspora. A major incentive for joining the choir and dance ensemble is the desire to participate in a traditional song and dance festival. My wife and I are both members of this dance ensemble, serving as role models for our children. My youngest daughter also enjoys attending the Latvian children’s dance group every Saturday, where she has the opportunity to speak Latvian with others. Additionally, the community offers “Pikku Putni”, Latvian language classes for children, further strengthening cultural ties.

In conclusion, and citing Sanita Martena (2023, p. 90), in all the families studied in the diaspora, there was a significant emphasis on the sociocultural aspect of language policy. Respondents were aware of the role of the Latvian language in both integrating into Latvian society and preserving their cultural identity. This understanding underpins the families’ decisions regarding language use and education, demonstrating the interplay between individual family choices and broader community efforts to maintain the Latvian language and culture abroad.

3.2. Institutional Support

Due to a range of historical and economic factors, Latvia has a significant diaspora, with estimates suggesting that over 370,000 Latvians live abroad. It is not easy to find the number of Latvians living in Finland. Some sources give the number as being more than 3600 people of full or partial Latvian descent residing in Finland (2021). Recognizing the integral role these individuals play in the fabric of our nation, Latvia has appointed an Ambassador-at-Large for Diaspora Affairs, Elita Gavele, and her responsibility involves coordinating the Latvian State’s diaspora policy across various state institutions. This policy is forward-thinking and focuses on integrating the diaspora into national affairs, encompassing civic and political engagement, and economic and scientific advancement, and encouraging remigration (Latviesi.com n.d.).

Given Latvia’s demographic challenges and the swift assimilation of its compatriots overseas, it is crucial to sustain their connection with Latvia. This is not only about preserving the Latvian language and cultural traditions among the diaspora but also about creating an environment in Latvia that is appealing for their return. The ambassador’s role is pivotal in establishing and nurturing a reciprocal relationship between the diaspora and the state.

To meet these objectives and others outlined in the Diaspora Law, they developed the government-approved Diaspora Plan 2021–2023. This comprehensive document, a first of its kind, details all the tasks to be undertaken, the expected outcomes, the responsible institutions, and the necessary funding for implementation. The development of this plan was significantly influenced by diaspora organizations, whose insights were invaluable in pinpointing the needs and priorities of the diaspora.

The evolving landscape of the Latvian diaspora, marked by its shift from the era of Soviet occupation, has brought to the forefront an increasing need for support, particularly in preserving the Latvian identity, culture, and language. Their comprehensive study conducted in 2021, which included interviews with leaders of key diaspora organizations and a survey encompassing 260 groups, shed light on the current state and needs of these organizations. A significant focus of these groups is on cultural activities, language preservation, and education, with many also hosting recreational events.

Geographically, the United Kingdom emerges as the hub of Latvian diaspora organizations, followed closely by the United States and Germany. There is a notable presence of the new diaspora in Europe, contrasting with the relatively smaller numbers in South America, Asia, and Africa. In regions like the USA, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia, where organizations have a history extending over 30 years, there’s a noticeable decline in membership and resources, a trend less pronounced but still present in European Union and European Economic Area countries.

The challenges faced by these organizations are multifaceted. A significant concern is the lack of human resources, with most organizations relying heavily on a small pool of active volunteers. Financial constraints are another major hurdle, with a majority operating on modest budgets primarily sourced from membership fees, donations, and, to a lesser extent, Latvian state grants.

The disparity in support mechanisms between different regions is striking. While organizations in the USA, Canada, and Australia have traditionally depended on donations and bequests, those in Europe benefit more from Latvian state funding. This discrepancy has led to a sense of division and jealousy among the organizations, highlighting the need for a more balanced approach to funding.

The role of these diaspora organizations cannot be overstated. They are the linchpins in maintaining a sense of community, belonging, and Latvian identity among expatriates. In their absence, the ties to Latvia weaken, and the risk of cultural assimilation increases. This underscores the importance of the Latvian state’s role in ensuring their sustainability through increased and equitable funding.

The Embassy of Latvia in Finland performs outstanding work, enjoying a significant standing among the Latvian community. It keeps local Latvians informed about all the latest news, organizes elections, and hosts meetings with notable individuals, such as Latvian historians, writers, poets, and more. Another crucial aspect of its role is organizing the celebration and reception for Latvian Independence Day, an event that draws participation from the Finnish Latvian community. This occasion serves as an excellent opportunity for making new acquaintances and contacts.

In addition to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia and Embassy, the Latvian Language Agency, under the Latvian Ministry of Education, provides significant support for the preservation of the Latvian language for persons, especially children, living abroad. The Latvian Language Agency actively supports the promotion and learning of the Latvian language abroad through two primary initiatives: firstly, by backing the study of Latvian as a foreign language at universities outside Latvia, and secondly, by aiding the learning of Latvian within the diaspora community.

In its efforts to bolster Latvian language learning among the diaspora, the Agency has implemented a comprehensive set of support measures. These include the development and provision of educational and methodological resources tailored to the needs of learners. Additionally, the Agency focuses on the professional development of educators within the diaspora, equipping them with the necessary skills and knowledge to teach the language effectively.

Recognizing the unique challenges faced by returnee children and families, the Agency also offers specialized training for Latvian teachers to cater to this group. Financial support is extended directly to weekend schools that focus on Latvian language education, ensuring that these institutions have the resources they need to operate successfully.

Moreover, the Agency supports the organization of educational events in host countries of the diaspora. These events are designed to encourage both the learning and usage of the Latvian language. For younger members of the diaspora, the Agency organizes language learning camps (also several summers in Finland), providing an immersive and engaging environment for children and youth to learn Latvian.

Lastly, the Agency provides valuable guidance and advice to teachers and parents, ensuring a cohesive and effective approach to teaching the Latvian language abroad. This multifaceted support system plays a crucial role in maintaining and promoting the Latvian language and culture within the global Latvian community.

The Latvian Language Agency has established partnerships with 27 foreign universities to enhance courses in Latvian language and culture. Over time, however, the landscape has shifted. Since 2008, reforms at several universities have led to a reduction, and in some cases, a complete halt in Latvian language research and study activities. This change has resulted in a decrease in the number of universities receiving information or financial support from the Agency. Currently, the Agency’s support is primarily directed towards European universities, with additional assistance extended to institutions in the USA, South Korea, and China. At present, the Agency maintains active relationships with 17 foreign higher education institutions, with the University of Helsinki among them (LVA n.d.a).

The support provided by the Latvian Language Agency encompasses a range of measures. Each year, the Agency supports the activities of eight Latvian lecturers at various higher education institutions. Additionally, it backs the organization of four–five events annually that promote the Latvian language. The Agency also offers methodological advice and information on initiatives related to the promotion, research, and teaching of the Latvian language.

Further, the Agency is involved in the publication of teaching and methodological materials and organizes experience exchange seminars for university lecturers. In collaboration with the University of Latvia, it supports the organization of Latvian language summer schools in Latvia. Moreover, the Agency facilitates the distribution of teaching materials, dictionaries, scientific literature, fiction, and methodological resources to universities, thereby contributing significantly to the global promotion and understanding of the Latvian language and culture. Thanks to the Agency, numerous textbooks and dictionaries have also been made available at the Library of the University of Helsinki.

Diaspora schools are provided with teaching materials, teachers are trained, and youth camps and exchange programmes are supported. Diaspora children are supported to learn Latvian in a distance learning environment, and Latvian language proficiency tests are provided in the diaspora.

In 2023, the Latvian Language Agency started a new tradition to thank the teams of Latvian schools in the diaspora—school leaders, teachers, and parents who enthusiastically and selflessly carry out outstanding work in the care and preservation of the Latvian language outside Latvia’s borders (LVA n.d.b).

A key focus of the Latvian Language Agency is on the professional development of educators within the diaspora. This includes specialized training for Latvian teachers to effectively work with children and families who return to Latvia, ensuring they are equipped with the necessary skills and understanding to meet their unique educational needs. In addition to educational support, the Latvian Language Agency provides direct financial assistance to many weekend schools teaching the Latvian language. This funding is crucial in sustaining these institutions and enhancing their educational offerings. The Agency also supports the organization of various educational events fostering a deeper connection with Latvian culture and heritage.

The Latvian language is taught outside Latvia in approximately 103 non-formal education institutions, commonly known as weekend schools, across 25 countries. This widespread network of schools plays a crucial role in maintaining and promoting the Latvian language and culture within the global Latvian community (LVA n.d.b). Annual meetings of Latvian language teachers, supported by the Latvian Language Agency, provide a platform for sharing best practices, discussing challenges, and exploring new methodologies in language teaching. These gatherings are crucial for professional development and for maintaining a unified approach to language education across different regions.

3.3. A Case Study of a Bilingual Latvian–Lithuanian Family in Finland

My family story starts with the deportation of Latvians and Lithuanians to Siberia after WWII. My mother Laimute Balode was born there to a mixed family as half Latvian and half Lithuanian (Protassova 2005). Later, she spent much time in both countries, Latvia and Lithuania, and she also worked in Finland, teaching both Baltic languages at the University of Helsinki. In my early years, despite my mother’s efforts living in Latvia to speak Lithuanian with me, her eldest son, my response leaned towards Latvian, the dominant language of our immediate environment. This preference underscores the profound impact of one’s surroundings on language acquisition. However, annual summer visits to Lithuania, Vilnius, where I interacted with Lithuanian peers, marked a turning point. These immersive experiences provided a natural and enjoyable context for language learning, highlighting the importance of meaningful social interactions in acquiring a heritage language. Grandparents often play a crucial role as a sanctuary of peace, especially in mixed families, where children can either learn or enhance their language skills. However, in my case, my grandparents, who were fluent in both Baltic languages, attempted to speak Latvian with me even at their home in Vilnius. Despite my mother’s efforts to communicate in Lithuanian, I resisted it as a teenager. Additionally, the bookshelf at home, filled with Lithuanian literature, did not appeal to me at that time. Thus, until around the age of 20, when I began studying Baltic languages at the University of Latvia, Latvian was my strongest language. I identified solely with Latvianness as my identity.

My family was established in Latvia, but we have been living in Finland for the past 7 years. My wife—born in Lithuania, and who studied as an exchange student in Latvia—and I use both Latvian and Lithuanian in our communication, writing mostly in Lithuanian and speaking mostly in Latvian. When we want to say something in secret, we use English, but that no longer works as our children can now understand it. Our eldest daughter, Liepa (13 years old), and eldest son, Norberts (11 years old), were born in Latvia. They attended kindergarten there, and their common language of communication was, and still is, mostly Latvian. Both are also fluent in Finnish. Liepa, in particular, is gifted with languages. She is talkative and communicates easily with friends and neighbours. This was also the reason why she quickly got used to the school and class team when we had to change schools. Language skills played a very important role in this case. On the other hand, Norberts has the opposite personality—he is highly introverted, not inclined towards languages, and thinks more mathematically. He also chooses more sports activities for his leisure time, playing football, where language skills are not so important. Consequently, his Finnish is not as strong, and he often mixes languages. Norberts himself feels his lack of language, so he speaks little and quite unclearly. To some extent, he as a teenager feels discomfort and sometimes even an inferiority complex. The third child in our family, Paula, aged 6, who successfully attends a Finnish kindergarten, speaks a lot and fluently in Latvian, Lithuanian, and Finnish, but mixes languages much more often than other children without even realizing it and without feeling any discomfort. Our youngest son, Vilis, aged one and a half, who has been attending the Finnish kindergarten since he was 9 months old, is just starting to speak, and mostly in Finnish, although he understands all commands in Latvian or Lithuanian as well.

As a funny example from my family when talking about identity, there is a conversation my mother had with her grandson Norberts when he was 5 years old, speaking about nationality: Who are you?—I am Latvian!—Why?—I was born in Latvia!—Who is Liepa? (elder sister)—She is Lithuanian!—Why?—She speaks Lithuanian well! My grandmother lives there!—Who is Paula? (younger sister)—She is Finnish!—Why?—She was born in Finland! (the fourth youngest brother still was not born). This clearly shows the child’s image that defines and forms the identity of a person.

Continuing the topic of language dynamics, it shifted when I started my own family. My wife, being Lithuanian, and I made a conscious decision to nurture both languages at home. This bilingual environment has enabled our children to become proficient in both Latvian and Lithuanian. We each spoke to our children in our native language, and they responded accordingly: to the mother in Lithuanian, to the father in Latvian. Initially, this seemed problem-free. However, moving to Finland 8 years ago introduced Finnish into our linguistic equation. Observing our four children—half Latvian, half Lithuanian—tending to converse in Finnish, especially in unguarded moments, prompted us to reassess our family language policy. We recognized the need to create a balanced environment where each language holds its value and space.

To counter the dominance of Finnish, we have employed several strategies. Firstly, we limit the use of Finnish at home, emphasizing Latvian and Lithuanian to ensure these languages remain active in our children’s daily lives, and it works: they are communicating between themselves mostly in Latvian, and our common language around the table is mostly Lithuanian. Additionally, an obligatory part of our day is reading Latvian and Lithuanian books before night (if there is no time to read, play Latvian/Lithuanian folk-tale recordings and songs in headphones). Secondly, we have observed the phenomenon of our children losing their connection to the heritage countries. To mitigate this, we have made concerted efforts to foster friendships with Latvian and Lithuanian children during school holidays. These connections not only enhance language skills but also strengthen cultural ties. Fortunately, we have the opportunity to visit grandparents in Latvia and Lithuania from time to time, where the children are immersed in the local cultural life, including visits to museums, concerts, and folk song festivals.

Sending our children to camps organized by the Latvian Language Agency or other organizations is another crucial aspect of our approach. These camps offer a structured environment for language learning and cultural immersion, complementing our efforts at home. They provide an opportunity for our children to engage with their heritage language in a fun, interactive setting, reinforcing the language skills and cultural connections we strive to maintain. In addition, they gain new friends with whom they can communicate in Latvian or Lithuanian. For example, one such event in Scandinavia, where our family from Finland also participated, was the camp “3×3” in Bergen, Norway, in 2019, 3–8 of August, the theme of which was “Home“ (“Mājas”). The camp was led by Inese Krūmiņa, and organized by Ilga Švāne and Laura Rastiņa. The activities of the camp tried to answer the questions: Where is our place in this world? How do we create this place so that our beloved people feel well, how do we create the home we come from, the home where our children grow up, where Latvian national culture meets the new home country and culture with all the pluses and minuses? How do we raise children in a multicultural environment, giving them the opportunity to inherit the best of our worlds (Camp “3×3” n.d.)?

Our journey through the complexities of raising bilingual children in a multilingual environment has been one of constant reflection and adaptation. It highlights the delicate balance required in family language policy, especially in a diaspora context. By sharing our story, we hope to offer insights into the challenges and rewards of nurturing heritage languages and to encourage other families in similar situations to find their unique path in this endeavour.

I have previously mentioned the practice of reading books in Latvian or Lithuanian within our family. It is not an easy task, especially since their schoolmates are required to read books in Finnish as well, making it an additional ‘job’ for our children. All our relatives are aware that the best birthday gift is a book in Latvian or Lithuanian. The theoretical literature suggests that reading books in Latvian and utilizing educational materials related to Latvian history, culture, and traditions are also ways to preserve the culture (Pranka et al. 2021, p. 44). According to the same authors, literacy in the mother tongue is gradually declining, for example, “however if in 2014 every third child could read Latvian books, then in 2019 only every fourth child in emigration could do so”. (Pranka et al. Idem.). If our two oldest children read in Latvian and can answer text questions, so their reading skills are good or above average, then their writing skills are at a very low level, because they rarely write—mostly only phone messages or short letters.

However, despite our best efforts, language interference occurs almost daily in our children’s communication. Here are some examples of language usage from our family. For example, Paula, who was 2 years old, often used Finnish commands even when she spoke Latvian. Sitting on the toilet, she might chase everyone away by shouting, Pois! Pois! which means ‘Go away!’ in Finnish, instead of using the Latvian Ej prom! When Paula was 4 years old, she said: Nesatikšu savu draudzeni Noru. Mums ir loma. ‘I will not see my friend Nora. We have a vacation.’ (cf. in Latvian atvaļinājums ‘vacation’).

Paula (5 years old): Man sāp polvis. ‘My knee hurts.’ (cf. in Latv. celis ‘knee’).

Paula (5.5 years old): Šūpini mani vahvasti! ‘Swing me hard!’ (cf. Latv. stipri ‘hard, strong’).

Children talk at the table about food, also interspersing some Finnish words:

Paula (5 years old): Ihan visus zirņus brālis apēda. ‘My brother ate all the peas.’ (cf. Latv. pilnīgi visus ‘absolutely all’).

Norberts (3.5 years old): Drīz būs kakku! ‘There will be a cake soon!’ (cf. Latv. kūka ‘cake’).

Finnish words in children’s speech are applied to the grammatical system of the Latvian language:

Paula (3 years old) wants to look at pictures on the phone and says: Mumme, es painīšu! Nē, paini tu! ‘Grandma, I’ll press it! No, you press it!’ (cf. Latv. spiedīšu ‘I will press’, spied ‘press’).

Paula (5.5 years old): Es visu laiku joksēju ‘I ran all the time’ (cf. Latv. skrēju ‘I ran’—verb coined from Finnish root + Latvian suffix -ēju).

Paula (6 years old): Kur ir mana pinnīte? ‘Where is my hairpin?’ (cf. Latv. dim. saspraudīte ‘hairpin’; word is coined from Finnish root + Latv. dim. suffix -īte).

Paula (6 years old): Vai tu zini, kurš ir vuosis? ‘Do you know what year it is?’ (cf. Latv. gads ‘year’; word is coined from Finnish vuosi ‘year’ + Latv. ending m. g. N. sg. -is).

Norberts (4 years old): Kad vectēvs mūs rokinās? ‘When will grandfather feed us?’ (cf. Latv. baros ‘will feed’ 3rd p. sg. fut.; the verb is coined from Finnish root ruokia + Latv. iterative suffix -inās).

Sometimes children do not make a difference between genders; it is very likely that this phenomenon is from Finnish language interference:

Paula (4 years old): Divi saulīši. ‘Two suns’ (m. g. N. pl. dimin.) (cf. Latv. divas saulītes, f. g. N. pl. dimin.).

Paula (5 years old), when talking about her little brother, regularly says Viņa (She) instead of Viņš (He): Viņa naktī bišku raudāja ‘She cried a little bit at night’ (cf. Latv. Viņš naktī raudāja).

Norberts (4 years old): Viņam vēl nav zobu, bet ir mēls (m. g. N. sg.) ‘He does not have teeth yet, but he has a tongue (m. g.)’ (cf. Latv. mēle f. g. N. sg.).

If children do not know or suddenly forget a word in Latvian, they use a Finnish lexeme instead:

Paula’s (4 years old) conversation with grandmother: Skatīsimies īsu filmu. Paula: Kas ir īss? (Let’s watch a short film. Paula: What is it īss?).

Norberts (5 years old): Mums dārziņā dod tikai terveellinen ruoka, nezinu, kā latviski. ‘They only give us healthy food in the kindergarden, I do not know how to say it in Latvian’ (cf. Latv. veselīgu pārtiku Acc.sg. ‘healthy food’).

Children also confuse Latvian and Lithuanian words, especially after summer visits to their grandmother in Lithuania, for example:

Paula (5.5 years old): Te dzīvo skruzdeles (cf. Lith. skruzdėlės ‘ants’ f. g. N. pl., Latv. skudras), bet tur ir viņu ķaušini (cf. Lith. kiaušiniai ‘egs’, Latv. olas. ‘Ants live here, but there are their eggs.’

Paula (5.5 years old): Man garšo tikai bulvītes. ‘I like only potatoes.’ (cf. Latv. dim. kartupelīši dim. N. pl.).

Norberts (3 years old): Mani bati lieli. ‘My shoes are big.’ (cf. Latv. kurpes ‘shoes’ m. g. N. pl.).

Norberts (3,5 years old): Noriu pagaršuoti. ‘I want to taste.’ (cf. Lith. paragauti ‘to taste’).

Norberts (3.5 years old): Māsiņa verks un spārdīsies. ‘Sister will cry and kick.’ (cf. Latv. raudās 3rd p. fut.).

An interesting example is a sentence where three languages are mixed when the girl is visiting Latvia:

Liepa (4 years old): Tajā spintā nav kutkas. ‘There is no jacket in that wardrobe.’ (cf. Latv. tajā L. sg. ‘that’, Lith. spintā ‘wardrobe’ L. sg., Latv. nav 3rd p. praes. ‘not to be’, Russ. kurtka Gen. sg. ‘jacket’).

Children’s statements about seeking a Latvian equivalent if they do not know it, and asking questions about words, indicate that they are developing an understanding of how languages are similar and different from each other. Their metalinguistic abilities are sufficiently developed to reason about this. They are capable of altering words from one language according to the rules of another, and vice versa.

4. Discussion

The contemporary literature increasingly acknowledges that national and ethnic identity is no longer monolithic or exclusive. In a multinational and multicultural environment, or when living in a new country, it is possible for the national identity of one’s country of origin to be complemented by a new, additional national identity. This evolving identity reflects the multifaceted nature of our globalized world, where individuals often face multiple cultural landscapes, shaping their sense of self in the process.

As mentioned in the extensive study compiled by Kaša and Mieriņa (2019), Latvian migrant families strive to maintain their ties with Latvia, particularly through language. Despite the challenges their children face in preserving their mother tongue, many families, like Maria and Peter who have lived in England for four and a half years with their three children, are determined to speak only Latvian at home. They believe that speaking their native language is crucial for maintaining their national identity. This sentiment is echoed by other Latvian families who view language as an integral part of their identity and are critical of those who do not maintain Latvian language use at home.

However, migrant parents face the complex task of encouraging their children to speak Latvian while also helping them learn English and adapt to their new environment in England. This balancing act aims to help children form a transnational identity. As children’s use of English increases, some born in Latvia begin to forget their mother tongue, adapt English grammar into Latvian, or even refuse to use Latvian at home, particularly if they feel embarrassed or corrected.

For instance, Alise, a mother who has lived in England for four years, shared a story about her son who, feeling hurt after a misunderstanding involving Latvian, hung a note on his door stating, “Do not come into my room. I do not understand Latvian”. This incident highlights the emotional complexities children face in managing multiple languages and identities. Similarly, Maria mentioned instances where her son felt ashamed to speak Latvian at school, fearing judgment from his peers.

The study also found that maintaining the Latvian language is not only about national belonging for some parents. Many find it easier to communicate in their native language and want their children to be able to converse with relatives in Latvia. Additionally, mass media and social media in Latvian play a significant role in maintaining the language and ties with Latvia. Parents try to immerse their children in Latvian media by downloading films, buying books, and encouraging them to engage with these resources, although they often need to motivate their children repeatedly to use them (Kaša and Mieriņa 2019, pp. 151–52). The above-mentioned study also notes a connection with age. Children who were younger upon their arrival in England tended to be more passive in their use of Latvian media. However, the findings indicate that despite parents’ efforts, children may not engage with these media sources (Kaša and Mieriņa 2019, p. 153).

Families recognize the importance of the Latvian language for integration into Latvian society and for maintaining their identity. Interviews with families revealed a conscious effort to use Latvian as the language of communication at home and the choice of Latvian language education institutions for their children. This highlights the critical role of family linguistic attitudes in fostering or hindering children’s acquisition of Latvian, pointing towards a nuanced understanding of identity that encompasses both cultural belonging and linguistic proficiency (Martena 2023, p. 93).

The family unit plays a foundational role in preserving heritage languages, with parents being particularly significant in influencing their children’s language learning and appreciation for the language. This underscores the family’s critical role in maintaining culture and identity. In bilingual families, even in the third generation, conscious decision making and self-examination about language use are essential. These processes help regulate the complexities of imparting multiple languages to children, ensuring each language maintains its space and relevance in daily life. Effective family language policies can significantly influence members’ linguistic proficiency and cultural self-reflection. The inclusion of other environmental languages contributes to linguistic diversity. Parents’ strategic balancing of languages reflects the complexity of family language practices, which involve both conscious and unconscious planning to maintain heritage languages.

The research integrated methods such as linguistic autoethnography, participant observation, and communication analysis. Through these comprehensive methodological approaches and diverse data sources, the results deliver a deeper understanding of the dynamics of heritage language preservation within bilingual and multilingual families throughout multiple generations.

5. Conclusions

The preservation of the Latvian language abroad is not merely an act of cultural conservation; it is a vibrant, living process that weaves together the threads of personal commitment, community involvement, and institutional support. This collaborative effort, as explored in this article, underscores the multifaceted nature of maintaining a heritage language across borders and generations. It is a journey that balances the intimate nuances of family dynamics with the broader strokes of community engagement and the strategic frameworks provided by institutions.

At the core of this endeavour are families, the primary custodians of language and culture. Their daily practices, choices, and the language environment they foster at home lay the foundational stones for language continuity. The stories of bilingual or multilingual families, presenting the complexities of imparting multiple languages to their children, highlight the critical role of family language policy and autoreflection. These narratives reveal the challenges, joys, and triumphs of raising children who are not only fluent in multiple languages but also deeply connected to their cultural roots.

Personal experience shows that in a mixed Latvian–Lithuanian family, living in a foreign environment, in Finland, it is a challenge to maintain ties with the native land, to protect native language and cultural foundations. A positive result is possible only by following a strict language strategy at home. In addition, house rules have a very positive effect: speaking only one language at the table, reading books in Latvian/Lithuanian every evening, or listening to texts in these languages through headphones helps to maintain the basic level of the language. It requires a great daily effort and grand patience. The personal example of one family with four children proves how important the activities are where one can meet the people of the same community in Finland—folk dance group, Latvian choir, etc. Special emphasis is placed on visiting grandparents in Latvia/Lithuania, visiting cultural events, and making new friends. Camps for diaspora of Latvians are extremely important, not only for children but also for adults, to preserve the feeling of home and native values.

Communities, both local and global, act as vital support systems, reinforcing the efforts of individual families. Through cultural events, language classes, and festivals, they provide spaces where heritage language and traditions can be celebrated and practiced. These gatherings in Finland are also more than mere social events; they are crucibles where language is actively used, learned, and passed on, strengthening the bonds of cultural identity and belonging. Unfortunately, many activities, Latvian language classes for children, folk dancing, theatre and choir groups, are located around the capital Helsinki, but families living in other regions of the country cannot easily take part in these activities.

Institutions like the Latvian Language Agency and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs play a strategic role in this tapestry. Their initiatives, from educational resources to the language camps mentioned above and teacher training programs, provide the necessary infrastructure to support language learning and cultural preservation.

As we look towards the future, the continued vibrancy and continuity of the Latvian language hinge on this synergistic approach. It is a collective responsibility, shared by individuals, families, communities, and institutions, to nurture and pass on this linguistic heritage. By doing so, we not only preserve a language but also honour a rich cultural legacy, ensuring that it remains a living, breathing part of our global tapestry. In this endeavour, we are reminded of the power of language to connect, to define, and to endure, bridging distances and generations, and keeping the spirit of Latvia alive in hearts and minds around the world. In the effort to preserve a language in a foreign country, every element plays a significant role—from community initiatives and educational programs to institutional support. Yet, the strong position of the family not to lose ties with the native country, using and teaching the language, along with their perseverance in maintaining cultural practices, forms the cornerstone of successful language preservation. Families serve as the primary conduit through which linguistic and cultural traditions are passed to the next generation, embedding language within daily life and ensuring its continued relevance and survival. Therefore, while many factors contribute to language preservation, the family’s role is the most critical, acting as the first line of defence against linguistic and cultural erosion.