Psychological Toll of the COVID-19 Pandemic: An In-Depth Exploration of Anxiety, Depression, and Insomnia and the Influence of Quarantine Measures on Daily Life
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Hypotheses Development
2.1. Anxiety
2.2. Depression
2.3. Insomnia
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Study Subjects
3.2. Research Design
3.3. Statistical Analysis
-Do you feel anxious about the spread of coronavirus? If yes, What makes you anxious about the spread of COVID-19?-Has the COVID-19 quarantine affected your life? If yes, please specify?
4. Results
4.1. Qualitative Results
4.1.1. Q1: What Makes You Anxious about the Spread of COVID-19?
- a.
- Life treats (death, life-threatening disease, highly infectious);
- b.
- Shortage of support (shortage/unavailability of vaccines, treatment, and inadequate healthcare);
- c.
- Economic impact (lockdown and quarantine, economic shutdown, unemployment);
- d.
- Family and social life (worries about family, disrupted social life).
4.1.2. Q2: Has the COVID-19 Quarantine Affected Your Life? If Yes, Please Specify?
4.2. Quantitative Analysis Results
4.2.1. Invariance Measurement
4.2.2. Measurement Model
4.2.3. Structural Model
5. Discussion
5.1. Research Implications, Limitations, and Future Directions
5.1.1. Practical Implications
5.1.2. Theoretical Contributions
5.1.3. Limitations and Future Directions
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Main Themes | Sub-Themes | Frequency | Percent |
---|---|---|---|
Life threats | Death (increasing number of deaths) | 123 | 12.31% |
Life-threatening disease | 32 | 3.20% | |
Highly infectious | 269 | 26.93% | |
Shortage of support | Shortage of vaccine/treatment | 52 | 5.21% |
Unavailability of enough healthcare | 29 | 2.90% | |
Economic impact | Lockdown and quarantine | 31 | 3.10% |
Economic shutdown | 52 | 5.21% | |
Joblessness | 47 | 4.70% | |
Family and social life | Anxious about family | 19 | 1.90% |
Imbalance in social life | 32 | 3.20% | |
Total | 686 | 68.67% |
Main Theme | Sub-Themes | Frequency | Percent | Cumulative Percent |
---|---|---|---|---|
Effects associated with the quarantine | Academic and schooling life interruption | 190 | 19.0% | 19.0% |
Family life and friendship interruption | 29 | 2.9% | 21.9% | |
Job/work and business interruption | 95 | 9.5% | 31.4% | |
Mixed issues (miscellaneous) | 198 | 19.8% | 51.2% | |
Psychopathological pressure | 102 | 10.2% | 61.4% | |
Movement restrictions | 35 | 3.5% | 64.9% | |
Idly staying at home | 51 | 5.1% | 70.0% | |
Income loss or no income | 39 | 3.9% | 73.9% | |
Time management | 12 | 1.2% | 75.1% | |
No travel or tour | 15 | 1.5% | 76.6% |
Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F | Sig. | Eta Value | Eta Square Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean_PHQ | Between groups | 33.155 | 56 | 0.592 | 1.251 | 0.106 | 0.263 | 0.069 |
Within groups | 445.673 | 942 | 0.473 | |||||
Total | 478.828 | 998 | ||||||
MeanGAD | Between groups | 31.891 | 56 | 0.569 | 1.329 | 0.057 | 0.271 | 0.073 |
Within groups | 403.620 | 942 | 0.428 | |||||
Total | 435.511 | 998 | ||||||
Mean_ISI | Between groups | 24.959 | 56 | 0.446 | 0.934 | 0.614 | 0.229 | 0.053 |
Within groups | 449.646 | 942 | 0.477 | |||||
Total | 474.606 | 998 | ||||||
Mean_IESR | Between groups | 32.379 | 56 | 0.578 | 1.056 | 0.366 | 0.243 | 0.059 |
Within groups | 515.578 | 942 | 0.547 | |||||
Total | 547.958 | 998 |
Construct/Items | Factor Loadings | Alpha | CR | AVE | R Square |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
GAD1 | 0.667 | 0.89 | 0.91 | 0.52 | 0.54 |
GAD2 | 0.807 | ||||
GAD3 | 0.703 | ||||
GAD4 | 0.765 | ||||
GAD5 | 0.704 | ||||
GAD6 | 0.762 | ||||
GAD7 | 0.763 | ||||
GAD8 | 0.682 | ||||
GAD10 | 0.638 | ||||
GAD1 | 0.667 | ||||
IESR1 | 0.660 | 0.93 | 0.94 | 0.52 | |
IESR2 | 0.731 | ||||
IESR3 | 0.751 | ||||
IESR4 | 0.761 | ||||
IESR6 | 0.745 | ||||
IESR9 | 0.702 | ||||
IESR10 | 0.742 | ||||
IESR12 | 0.712 | ||||
IESR14 | 0.702 | ||||
IESR15 | 0.711 | ||||
IESR16 | 0.798 | ||||
IESR17 | 0.651 | ||||
IESR18 | 0.758 | ||||
IESR19 | 0.696 | ||||
ISI1 | 0.828 | 0.89 | 0.91 | 0.65 | |
ISI2 | 0.789 | ||||
ISI3 | 0.674 | ||||
ISI5 | 0.806 | ||||
ISI6 | 0.870 | ||||
ISI7 | 0.857 | ||||
PHQ1 | 0.760 | 0.89 | 0.92 | 0.61 | |
PHQ2 | 0.809 | ||||
PHQ3 | 0.813 | ||||
PHQ4 | 0.799 | ||||
PHQ5 | 0.789 | ||||
PHQ6 | 0.767 | ||||
PHQ7 | 0.724 |
Fornell-Larcker Criterion | Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GAD | IES-R | ISI | PHQ | GAD | IES-R | ISI | PHQ | |
GAD | 0.723 | |||||||
IESR | 0.643 | 0.724 | 0.686 | |||||
ISI | 0.709 | 0.663 | 0.806 | 0.797 | 0.698 | |||
PHQ | 0.708 | 0.627 | 0.570 | 0.781 | 0.792 | 0.675 | 0.636 |
Hypotheses | Path Coefficient | Standard Deviation | T Statistics | p-Values | VIF | Lower Limit | Upper Limit | Decision |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GAD -> IESR | 0.168 | 0.040 | 4.100 | <0.001 | 2.057 | 0.096 | 0.246 | Accepted |
ISI -> IESR | 0.381 | 0.032 | 11.19 | <0.001 | 2.793 | 0.306 | 0.437 | Accepted |
PHQ -> IESR | 0.290 | 0.034 | 8.11 | <0.001 | 2.002 | 0.222 | 0.355 | Accepted |
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Aljaberi, M.A.; Al-Sharafi, M.A.; Uzir, M.U.H.; Sabah, A.; Ali, A.M.; Lee, K.-H.; Alsalahi, A.; Noman, S.; Lin, C.-Y. Psychological Toll of the COVID-19 Pandemic: An In-Depth Exploration of Anxiety, Depression, and Insomnia and the Influence of Quarantine Measures on Daily Life. Healthcare 2023, 11, 2418. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11172418
Aljaberi MA, Al-Sharafi MA, Uzir MUH, Sabah A, Ali AM, Lee K-H, Alsalahi A, Noman S, Lin C-Y. Psychological Toll of the COVID-19 Pandemic: An In-Depth Exploration of Anxiety, Depression, and Insomnia and the Influence of Quarantine Measures on Daily Life. Healthcare. 2023; 11(17):2418. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11172418
Chicago/Turabian StyleAljaberi, Musheer A., Mohammed A. Al-Sharafi, Md. Uzir Hossain Uzir, Aiche Sabah, Amira Mohammed Ali, Kuo-Hsin Lee, Abdulsamad Alsalahi, Sarah Noman, and Chung-Ying Lin. 2023. "Psychological Toll of the COVID-19 Pandemic: An In-Depth Exploration of Anxiety, Depression, and Insomnia and the Influence of Quarantine Measures on Daily Life" Healthcare 11, no. 17: 2418. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11172418