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Article

Nonthermal Processing as a Tool to Enhance Fruit Juice Bioactive Compounds’ Bioaccessibility

by
Thatyane Vidal Fonteles
1,
Dayanne Lara Holanda Maia
2,
Brenda Novais Santos
2,
Fabiano André Narciso Fernandes
2,
Sueli Rodrigues
1,* and
Pedro Campelo
3
1
Food Engineering Department, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza 60440-900, Brazil
2
Chemical Engineering Department, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60440-900, Brazil
3
Food Science Technology Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa 36570-900, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2024, 12(8), 1640; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12081640
Submission received: 4 July 2024 / Revised: 24 July 2024 / Accepted: 31 July 2024 / Published: 4 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Non-thermal Technologies and Thermal Technologies in Food Processing)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Nonthermal processing can change and improve the composition of food. This study examines the impact of cold plasma technology—glow discharge, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD), and ultrasound (US)—on the bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and total phenolic compounds (TPCs) in orange and cashew apple juice after simulated digestion. The juices were treated by DBD plasma for 20 min at three different frequencies (50, 500, and 1000 Hz), glow discharge plasma at three synthetic air flow rates (10, 20, and 30 mL/min), and US at three potencies (183, 280 and 373 W/cm2) for 10 min. The nonthermal processing did not significantly reduce the levels of ascorbic acid in cashew apple juice. In contrast, the ascorbic acid levels either remained stable or increased by up to 80% for orange juice. The processing improved the bioaccessibility of total phenolic compounds (TPCs) in both juices, reaching 150% in cashew apple juice treated with US at 373 W/cm2. Despite the decrease in the bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid in orange juice, the nonthermal processing notably enhanced this bioactive compound’s bioaccessibility by 10% to 20% compared to the control sample, highlighting the potential of nonthermal technologies to improve the nutritional quality of foods.

1. Introduction

Nonthermal processing has emerged as a groundbreaking technology in the food industry and an alternative to conventional thermal methods. These technologies are now explored for their ability to modulate the composition of the food matrix, thereby enhancing bioactive compound bioaccessibility [1].
Some nonthermal technologies can improve the bioactive content of vegetable tissue and plant-based beverages [2]. US can bring about chemical and mechanical changes in vegetable cells through cavitation, sonolysis, and microstreaming. Cold plasma processing generates reactive species like singlet oxygen, OH radicals, and NO radicals, interacting with bioactive molecules [3]. The type of species generated depends on the configuration and parameters of the plasma equipment used. For instance, glow discharge plasma and dielectric barrier plasma (DBD) create different plasma environments. While nitrogen species are still present in glow discharge plasma, DBD plasma has a higher concentration of OH radicals and nitric oxide. These changes could improve the bioactive compounds’ extractability, positively impacting health.
A bioactive compound must withstand food processing to access the specific tissue where it acts [4]. Bioaccessibility is the concentration of a compound released from a food matrix after complete digestion and metabolism [5]. On the other hand, bioavailability is the portion of a digested nutrient that is absorbed and enters the human bloodstream and might be used for physiological functions [6]. Therefore, while quantifying bioactive compounds after processing is important for screening purposes, these results do not contemplate the complex changes observed during digestion and absorption of the bioactive compound.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and phenolic compounds are vital bioactive compounds in fruit juice. The human body does not produce these compounds, which must be acquired through the diet. Ascorbic acid is essential for human health. It is a potent antioxidant involved in the growth, development, and repair of body tissue, collagen formation, iron absorption, and immune system function [7,8]. Additionally, phenolic compounds possess robust antioxidant properties that help neutralize harmful free radicals in the body. They also exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and cardiovascular protective effects, which contribute to preventing chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and certain cancers. Including phenolic-rich foods in the diet can significantly enhance overall well-being and longevity [9,10,11].
Considering the limited information regarding the effect of nonthermal technologies on bioactive compounds’ bioaccessibility, this paper aims to investigate the impact of DBD plasma, glow discharge plasma, and US on the bioaccessibility of vitamin C and phenolics in orange and cashew apple juice. The findings from this study shed light on the transformative potential of these nonthermal technologies in elevating the nutritional quality of fruit juices.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Fruit Juices

Pasteurized orange juice was purchased at the local market (Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil). The cashew apple juice was prepared by diluting the commercial pulp (Nossa Fruta, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil) purchased at the local market at a 1:2 ratio with potable water.

2.2. Nonthermal Processing

Dielectric barrier discharge plasma was processed using a benchtop plasma generator system (Inergiae Pulse, Florianópolis, Brazil). Plasma was generated in the gap (1.5 cm) between two 8 cm aluminum electrodes, using two 5 mm acrylic plates as dielectric barriers. Plasma was generated by applying 50, 500, and 1000 Hz frequencies and a 20 kV voltage between the electrodes for 20 min. Acrylic petri dishes containing 20 mL of each juice were placed in the gap between the electrodes and subjected to plasma treatment.
Glow discharge plasma was produced using a PE-50 benchtop plasma system (Plasma Etch, Carson City, NV, USA). The plasma was generated using synthetic air (grade FID 4.0, purity 99.95%, White Martins, São Paulo, Brazil). A 50 kHz radio-frequency source excited the ions and created plasma by applying 80 kV through the electrodes. The air passing through the electrodes was fed into a processing chamber measuring 19 × 22 × 9 cm, which contained the samples. A vacuum pump (Platinum DV-142N, Aurora, IL, USA) maintained the processing chamber at 0.3 bar. The experiments were carried out at 10, 20, and 30 mL/min air flow rates for 20 min.
US processing was conducted in a 500 mL glass-jacketed reactor with a final sample volume of 200 mL. The juices were treated using a 500 W US probe (1.3 cm-diameter probe tip) (Unique® DES500, São Paulo, Brazil), and no mechanical agitation was used. The US frequency was 20 kHz for 10 min. An external circulating water bath kept the temperature at 25 °C. The probe was submerged to a depth of 15 mm in the sample. The intensity of US power dissipated from the probe tip was 186, 280, and 373 W/cm2 for 10 min.

2.3. In Vitro Digestion

The in vitro digestion followed the INFOGEST protocol [12], which included the oral, gastric, and intestinal phases [13]. The digestion process was conducted in a shaker incubator at 37 °C with 90 rpm agitation. A stock solution for each phase was prepared to simulate salivary fluid (SSF), gastric fluid (SGF), and intestinal fluid (SIF) [12]. The pH was adjusted for each phase using NaOH 1M or HCl 1 M.
In the oral phase, 5 mL of the juice was diluted in a 1:1 ratio with simulated salivary fluid (SSF) without amylase and incubated for 2 min. The oral digesta was mixed in a 1:1 ratio with simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and 2000 U/mL of pepsin from Sigma Aldrich for the gastric phase. The incubation was carried out at 90 rpm and pH 3.0 for 2 h.
In the intestinal phase, the gastric chyme was mixed in a 1:1 ratio with simulated intestinal fluid (SIF), 200 mg/mL of bile, and 133.3 mg/mL of pancreatin from Sigma Aldrich. The pH was adjusted to 7.0, and the digestion occurred at 37 °C for 2 h under 90 rpm. Samples were collected after complete digestion to quantify ascorbic acid and TPC. All chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (São Paulo, Brazil).

2.4. Quantification of Bioactive Compounds

Ascorbic acid was determined using HPLC with a UV-DAD detector (Agilent Infinity 1200, Santa Clara, CA, USA) at 210 nm, following the method described by Nascimento et al. [14]. The separation was carried out on an BIORAD (, Aminex HPX-87H column (300 × 7.8 mm) at 50 °C with sulfuric acid (5 mM) at a 0.4 mL/min flow rate as mobile phase. Quantification was carried out using an ascorbic acid standard curve. All the reagents used for this analysis were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich.
TPC was determined using the Folin–Ciocâlteu methodology [15]. An aliquot (10 μL) of diluted juice (1:10) was mixed with 200 μL of Folin–Ciocâlteu reagent, and 100 μL of 20% sodium carbonate. The mixture was then kept in the dark (3 min at 25 °C), and the absorbance was measured at 700 nm in a BioteK Epoch plate spectrophotometer (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Quantification was carried out using a gallic acid (GA) calibration curve. The results are reported as mg GA equivalents (E)/L of juice.
All reagents utilized for quantifying bioactive compounds were from Sigma-Aldrich (São Paulo, Brazil).

2.5. Bioaccessibility Calculations

The bioactive compound retention was calculated as the percentage found in the juice after the nonthermal processing, taking the unprocessed juices as a reference value (Equation (1)):
R e t e n t i o n   % = C o n c e n t r a t i o n   a f t e r   n o n t h e r m a l   p r o c e s s i n g C o n c e n t r a t i o n   i n   t h e   n o n − p r o c e s s e d   j u i c e   ( c o n t r o l   s a m p l e ) × 100
The bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid and TPC after the simulated gastrointestinal digestion was calculated as a relative amount compared to non-processed samples (control):
B i o a c e s s i b i l i t y   % = C o n c e n t r a t i o n   a f t e r   s i m u l a t e d   d i g e s t i o n C o n c e n t r a t i o n   b e f o r e   t h e   s i m u l a t e d   d i g e s t i o n × 100

2.6. Statistical Analysis

The analyses were conducted three times. The data were analyzed using Statistica 14.0 (Statsoft South America, São Caetano do Sul, SP, Brazil). The Tukey test at a 5% significance level was used for mean comparisons.

3. Results

3.1. Nonthermal Processing Effect on Bioactive Compound Concentration

Table 1 displays the ascorbic acid and TPC in cashew apple and orange juice and the impact of nonthermal processing methods such as US, DBD, and glow discharge plasma.
The concentration of ascorbic acid in cashew apple juice did not change much after nonthermal processing. However, the vitamin C content in orange juice increased significantly after the glow plasma processing at higher flow rates. In addition, TPC increased significantly in both juices.

3.1.1. Ascorbic Acid Retention after Nonthermal Processing

The ascorbic acid retention in cashew apple juice and orange juice is presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively.
The ascorbic acid concentrations after the nonthermal processing were lower than or equal to those obtained in the non-processed sample, as the retention did not exceed 100% (Figure 1). The glow discharge plasma increased the ascorbic acid content of orange juice by 80% and 46% after 20 min using air plasma flow rates of 20 mL/min and 30 mL/min, respectively. Additionally, when orange juice was processed by DBD plasma at 1000 Hz, the ascorbic acid concentration increased by 66%, while no changes were observed at lower frequencies (Figure 2).
Although DBD and glow discharge plasma increased ascorbic acid concentration of orange juice, at the highest frequencies and flow rates, a frequency ranging from 50 to 1000 Hz and flow rate ranging from 10 to 30 mL/min did not significantly impact the final concentration of ascorbic acid. Castro [16] reported that higher excitation frequencies resulted in better plasma stability and reactivity for DDB-processed Camu juice, increasing the membrane degradation rate of food plant cells.
Several authors reported the application of nonthermal technologies to extract bioactive compounds from vegetable tissue [3,17,18]. At first, bioactive concentration increases due to its ability to disrupt cells and break down large molecules. In US processing, cell disruption is a result of the cavitation phenomenon [19]. The cold plasma effect on improving extraction is attributed to the breakdown of cell wall structure and increased surface hydrophilicity [20,21,22]. The disruption of cell wall structures can reduce the diffusion resistance of active ingredients, promoting their release. Additionally, the increased surface hydrophilicity of materials facilitates the dissolution and diffusion of hydrophilic active ingredients, thus enhancing extraction efficiency. Cold plasma can also damage the cell wall structure through the etching effect of charged particles, oxidizing chemically reactive species, electroporation of electric fields, and mechanical force of shock waves [20,21,23].
Moreover, plasma and US processing can be related to the activation/denaturation of enzymes such as dehydroascorbate reductase and ascorbate peroxidase, which are enzymes related to ascorbic acid degradation [24,25]. However, depending on the food matrix, a decrease can be observed as the intracellular content is released into the liquid medium, reacting with other metabolites, processing products, and enzymes.
Cell wall disruption due to the high-intensity energy of US, for example, can facilitate the contact of ascorbic acid with enzymes such as L-ascorbic acid peroxidase, facilitating ascorbic acid oxidation. Additionally, ascorbic acid degradation could be due to thermolysis inside the cavitation bubble or hydroxyl radical reactions with the formation of oxidation products on the bubble surface [26]. Temperature is the most critical factor for vitamin C retention [27]. In this sense, nonthermal technologies suit vitamin C-rich fruit juices like orange and cashew apple juice.

3.1.2. Total Phenolic Retention after Nonthermal Processing

Figure 3 and Figure 4 present the TPC retention in cashew and orange juice, respectively. Nonthermal processing showed a variable impact on TPC retention in cashew apple and orange juice, depending on the type and intensity of processing. An increase in orange juice was observed for DBD and US processing.
TPC retention ranged from 116% to 146% in all US-processed cashew juice. Cold plasma (using both DBD and glow) resulted in the highest extraction of TPC from cashew apple juice, with a 43% increase achieved during glow discharge processing at a flow rate of 20 mL/min (Figure 3). In the case of orange juice (Figure 4), the highest TPC extraction occurred with US processing at 373 W/cm2 for 10 min and DBD 1000 Hz. An increase in TPC was also observed after DBD processing of açai juice [28] and araça-boi juice [29]. However, the best processing parameters are usually different for each food matrix. For açai juice processing, the lowest excitation frequencies and longest processing time (50 Hz/15 min) favored the release of phenolic compounds. On the other hand, for araça-boi processing, DBD plasma operating at 1000 Hz resulted in the highest TPC levels.
The effect of glow discharge plasma on siriguela juice was studied by Paixão [30]. It was found that using a gas flow of 10 mL/min did not affect the TPC concentration, regardless of the exposure time. However, when the gas injection was increased to 20 mL/min for 15 min, there was a 58% increase in TPC concentration. The increased charge concentration might cause an electrostatic force leading to the cell wall’s rupture, releasing phenolics from the cell vacuoles or bound to pectin, cellulose, and lignin traces.
Bao [31] observed an improvement in phenolic extraction from tomato pomace processed by high-voltage (60 kV) atmospheric cold plasma and attributed this to the surface rupture, surface hydrophilicity modification, and bonded phenolic cleavage acting synergistically to improve TPC. The increase in phenolic content in food matrices following plasma processing might be due to the dissolution and depolymerization of cell wall polysaccharides. This facilitates conjugated phenolic compound extraction [32].
Plant phenolic compounds are large molecules composed of several units (polyphenols) [33,34]. Cold plasma technology has shown significant promise in enhancing the extraction of phenolic compounds from various plant materials. This process involves using ionized gas at low temperatures to break down cell walls and release bioactive compounds more efficiently. The effect of nonthermal processing strongly depends on the processing conditions and the food matrix. The processing might increase, decrease, or have a non-significant impact on the target molecule. Plasma processing can increase the bioactive content in foods through different mechanisms that might act in synergy. Plasma etching is a phenomenon that creates pores and damages the vegetable tissue surface, facilitating the extraction of intracellular components [35]. The reactive species ROS and RNS, the UV radiation generated in DBD, and the depolymerization cross-linking imparted in the food matrix by plasma processing can break down complex molecules, releasing bonded molecules [35,36]. Also, the impact of electrons might contribute to the extraction mechanism. High-energy electrons can ionize atoms and molecules, leading to several chemical reactions that might contribute to the release of bioactive compounds [35]. Thus, cold plasma treatment enhances the extraction and the depolymerization of phenolic compounds, increasing the yield and the bioavailability of those compounds [37,38].
Tabaraki [39] reported that the heating from the collapse of bubbles during ultrasonic processing can make plant tissue softer and weaken cell walls. This can cause phenolic compounds to be released from other molecules, such as proteins or carbohydrates, and make them more soluble. In addition to extracting these compounds, the processing can also lead to changes in their characteristics, such as hydroxylation, methylation, isoprenylation, dimerization, glycosylation, and the formation of phenolic derivatives. These changes can affect the bioaccessibility of total phenolic compounds (TPCs) [40]. DBD processing of pineapple juice resulted in a high accumulation of hydrogen peroxide, which may induce oxygen and hydroxyl abstraction from the protocatechuic acid [41]. US treatment of strawberry juice increased the total phenolic content (TPC) by 83% [42].
The increase or decrease in bioactive compound content in foods after nonthermal treatment is due to a combination of factors, including cell wall disruption, free radical generation, enzyme activation/inactivation, and their interaction with the food matrix. The processing parameters also affect the results due to the differences in the kind and the number of reactive species formed in plasma and US processing [19]. The cavitation phenomenon in US depends on the US potency, temperature, suspended solids, and fluid viscosity [43,44]. Plasma etching and the plasma reactive species depend on the kind of gas, the flow rate, pressure, voltage, and frequency [35,45,46]. The plasma system and the operating conditions affect the reactive species generated and their interaction with food [47].

3.2. In Vitro Digestion

In vitro digestion assays play a key role in evaluating the bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds in foods. These assays replicate the human digestive process, enabling researchers to gauge the release and availability of these compounds for absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Aside from the concentration of certain nutrients in a food matrix, digestion affects bioactive chemical release, transformation, and absorption [48]. Because the effect of nonthermal processing on the bioactive compounds is strongly dependent on the food matrix and processing parameters, it is not easy to compare different processes. In vitro simulated digestion was carried out with the samples processed by DBD 500 Hz/20 min, glow discharge 10 mL/min, and US 373 W/cm2, representing an intermediate condition for DBD, the lowest flow rate for glow discharge, and the highest potency for US. The bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid and TPC are presented in Figure 5 and Figure 6.
For the non-processed juices (control sample), the bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid was 103% for cashew apple juice and 50% for orange juice (Figure 5) Following digestion, the bioaccessible fraction of ascorbic acid increased by 15% for orange juice processed by US (-373 W/cm2), 25% for orange juice processed by DBD 500 Hz/20 min, and 16% for orange juice processed by glow plasma (10 mL/min for 0 min) compared to the non-processed juice (Figure 6). However, the bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid decreased by 15% for cashew apple juice processed by US 373 W/cm2 and 34% for cashew apple juice processed by glow plasma (10 mL/min for 10 min). DBD processing resulted in a 9% increase in the bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid in cashew apple juice. The results show that the nonthermal processing increased the ascorbic acid bioaccessibility in orange juice. On the other hand, in cashew apple juice, only DBD processing increased the ascorbic acid bioaccessibility compared to the control sample.
The bioavailability of bioactive compounds in the digestive system is more important than their initial content in food. Ascorbic acid is fully charged in low pH and gradually undergoes oxidation in the presence of oxygen. Therefore, vitamin C loss occurs in the intestinal phase instead of in the gastric phase due to the high pH [49]. Because ascorbic acid is in the ascorbate form at intestinal pH values, it is more prone to antidegradation, and a decrease in its bioaccessibility is expected.
Food composition can impact the bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid once other vitamins, flavanones, fiber, and minerals are susceptible to the energy and consequences of nonthermal technologies, which in turn can protect vitamin C from degradation, resulting in significant improvement in the bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid in cashew apple juice processed by DBD plasma at 700 Hz than at 200 Hz for 15 min. Castro et al. [16] found an increased recovery of ascorbic acid of Camu-Camu by increasing the excitation frequency from 698 to 960 Hz. The bioaccessibility of the phenolic compounds is presented in Figure 6.
Phenolic compounds may be modified by the adverse conditions found during digestion, leading to the formation of different secondary products, such as phenolic acids. Studying the bioavailability of different phenolic groups and the overall bioavailability of phenolic compounds may be more beneficial [3].
A bioaccessible fraction of 107% and 100% was found for the non-processed cashew and orange juices, respectively (Figure 6). The glow discharge plasma processing favored a higher bioaccessibility of TPC after gastrointestinal digestion of orange juice, with a bioaccessible fraction of 249.35%. In comparison, the US processing favored the highest TPC bioaccessibility of cashew apple juice (200%). Polyphenols present in food are usually attached to carbohydrate molecules. Polyphenols might detach from their carbohydrate during processing and gastrointestinal digestion, making them more bioaccessible [50]. The reactive plasma species can interact with the surface of vegetable cells. This reaction releases free phenolic compounds, which are easily detected by analytical methods and are directly correlated with increased bioavailability in the juice [29].
The phenolic compounds were more stable under the simulated digestive conditions due to their molecular structure, which makes them less susceptible to pH changes. The higher TPC bioaccessibility found in the digested cashew apple juice might be attributable to the release of phenolic compounds bonded to the vegetable tissue [51].
Bioactive compounds in foods are typically present in small amounts. Understanding their bioaccessibility is vital to assess their effectiveness. Knowing a nutrient’s bioaccessibility holds greater significance than just its concentration. Furthermore, being aware of the processing effects on bioactive compounds’ bioaccessibility allows for informed decisions when selecting processing methods to enhance the nutritional quality of food [52].

4. Conclusions

Nonthermal processing methods, such as US and glow plasma, have improved the bioaccessibility of ascorbic acid in orange juice. However, their impact on cashew apple juice seems to vary because of the difference in the juice composition and its interaction with the digestive enzymes and other components of the simulated digestive fluids. Notably, ascorbic acid is more susceptible to degradation at higher pH levels, resulting in greater losses during the intestinal phase. Nevertheless, the composition of the food and processing conditions can effectively shield vitamin C from degradation, ultimately enhancing its bioaccessibility.
Additionally, phenolic compounds can transform digestion, yielding secondary products such as phenolic acids. Processing techniques such as glow discharge plasma and US have demonstrated the ability to enhance the bioaccessibility of TPC in the studied juices. This heightened stability of phenolic compounds under digestive conditions is attributed to their molecular structure, making them less susceptible to pH changes and leading to increased bioaccessibility in some processed juices. Bioaccessibility is an important parameter when calculating the daily intake recommendation for a specific nutrient. When designing food processing, future studies should consider bioaccessibility alongside chemical compound concentrations.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.C., F.A.N.F. and S.R.; methodology, T.V.F., D.L.H.M., B.N.S., S.R., F.A.N.F. and P.C.; software, T.V.F.; validation, D.L.H.M. and T.V.F.; formal analysis, T.V.F., S.R., F.A.N.F. and P.C.; investigation, T.V.F., D.L.H.M., B.N.S., F.A.N.F., S.R. and P.C.; resources, S.R., F.A.N.F. and P.C.; data curation, T.V.F. and D.L.H.M.; writing—original draft preparation, T.V.F.; writing—review and editing, S.R., F.A.N.F. and P.C.; visualization, T.V.F., S.R., F.A.N.F. and P.C.; supervision, S.R. and F.A.N.F.; project administration, S.R., F.A.N.F. and P.C.; funding acquisition, S.R. and F.A.N.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors thank the Brazilian funding agency CNPq through the National Institute of Science and Technology of Tropical Fruits for the financial support and FUNCAP for the grants and scholarships. This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—finance code 001 Brasil (CAPES).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Processes 12 01640 g001
Figure 1. Retention of ascorbic acid in cashew apple juice after nonthermal processing. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
Figure 1. Retention of ascorbic acid in cashew apple juice after nonthermal processing. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
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Processes 12 01640 g002
Figure 2. Retention of ascorbic acid in orange after nonthermal processing. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
Figure 2. Retention of ascorbic acid in orange after nonthermal processing. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
Processes 12 01640 g002
Processes 12 01640 g003
Figure 3. Retention of total TPC in cashew apple juice after DBD, glow plasma, and US processing. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
Figure 3. Retention of total TPC in cashew apple juice after DBD, glow plasma, and US processing. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
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Processes 12 01640 g004
Figure 4. Retention of TPC in orange after DBD, glow plasma, and US processing. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
Figure 4. Retention of TPC in orange after DBD, glow plasma, and US processing. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
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Processes 12 01640 g005
Figure 5. Ascorbic acid bioaccessibility (%) after simulated enzyme digestion. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
Figure 5. Ascorbic acid bioaccessibility (%) after simulated enzyme digestion. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
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Processes 12 01640 g006
Figure 6. TPC bioaccessibility (%) after simulated enzyme digestion. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
Figure 6. TPC bioaccessibility (%) after simulated enzyme digestion. Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at a significance level of 5% (Tukey’s test).
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Table 1. Effects of US, DBD, and glow plasma processing on ascorbic acid and TPC.
Table 1. Effects of US, DBD, and glow plasma processing on ascorbic acid and TPC.
SampleAscorbic Acid (g/L)TPC (mg/L)
Cashew Orange Cashew Orange
Control0.26 ± 0.010.39 ± 0.01245.50 ± 5.07101.42 ± 7.14
DBD-50 Hz0.25 ± 0.050.41 ± 0.02340.80 ± 3.49108.57 ± 3.63
DBD-500 Hz0.26 ± 0.020.40 ± 0.03317.00 ± 2.44126.03 ± 2.38
DBD-1000 Hz0.25 ± 0.050.65 ± 0.05326.60 ± 7.19141.90 ± 3.23
GLOW-10 mL/min0.23 ± 0.040.39 ± 0.04319.10 ± 8.49131.58 ± 4.24
GLOW-20 mL/min0.24 ± 0.070.70 ± 0.06352.00 ± 2.02107.77 ± 3.56
GLOW-30 mL/min0.21 ± 0.050.57 ± 0.05329.90 ± 9.27101.42 ± 4.45
US-186 W/cm20.26 ± 0.020.40 ± 0.06261.90 ± 4.0194.28 ± 1.37
US-280 W/cm20.25 ± 0.040.39 ± 0.09284.30 ± 7.75115.71 ± 7.27
US-373 W/cm20.22 ± 0.060.40 ± 0.01310.30 ± 1.77143.49 ± 1.74
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MDPI and ACS Style

Fonteles, T.V.; Maia, D.L.H.; Santos, B.N.; Fernandes, F.A.N.; Rodrigues, S.; Campelo, P. Nonthermal Processing as a Tool to Enhance Fruit Juice Bioactive Compounds’ Bioaccessibility. Processes 2024, 12, 1640. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12081640

AMA Style

Fonteles TV, Maia DLH, Santos BN, Fernandes FAN, Rodrigues S, Campelo P. Nonthermal Processing as a Tool to Enhance Fruit Juice Bioactive Compounds’ Bioaccessibility. Processes. 2024; 12(8):1640. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12081640

Chicago/Turabian Style

Fonteles, Thatyane Vidal, Dayanne Lara Holanda Maia, Brenda Novais Santos, Fabiano André Narciso Fernandes, Sueli Rodrigues, and Pedro Campelo. 2024. "Nonthermal Processing as a Tool to Enhance Fruit Juice Bioactive Compounds’ Bioaccessibility" Processes 12, no. 8: 1640. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12081640

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