Authentication of the Botanical and Geographical Origin and Detection of Adulteration of Olive Oil Using Gas Chromatography, Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy Techniques: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Spectroscopic Techniques Used to Evaluate Adulteration of EVOO and VOO: Focus on Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy
Spectroscopic Techniques Used to Evaluate the Authenticity of EVOO and VOO According to Their Variety and Geographical and Botanical Origin: Focus on Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy
3. Detection of EVOO and VOO Adulteration by Gas Chromatography
3.1. Volatile Profile of EVOO and VOO as an Index for Evaluating Its Authenticity by Gas Chromatography Based on Geographical Origin
3.2. Volatile Profile of EVOO and VOO as an Index for Evaluating Its Authenticity by Gas Chromatography Based on Variety/Botanical Origin
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ANN-MLP | Artificial Neural Network with Multilayer Perception |
ANOVA | Analysis of Variance |
BOSS | Bootstrapping soft shrinkage |
CA | Cluster analysis |
CAR/PDMS | Carboxen/Polydimethylsiloxane |
CARS | Competitive adaptive reweighted sampling |
CI | Univariate conformity index |
DA | Discriminant analysis |
DVB/CAR/PDMS | Divinylbenzene/Carboxen/Polydimethylsiloxane |
EEC | European Community |
EVOO | Extra virgin olive oil |
FA | Fatty acid |
FDA | Factorial discriminant analysis |
FT-IR | Fourier transform infrared |
GCXGC-TOFMS | Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography and Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry |
GC-FID | Gas chromatography with flame ionization detection |
GC-ITMS | Gas chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry |
GC-MS | Gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry |
HCA | Hierarchical cluster analysis |
HS-SPME | Headspace solid-phase microextraction |
IOC | International olive oil council |
IRIV | Iteratively retaining informative variables PLS |
IRMS | Isotope ratio mass spectrometry |
k-NN | K-Nearest Neighbor Analysis |
LA | Linoleic acid |
LDA | Linear discriminant analysis |
LOX | Lipoxygenase |
MADOVA | Multivariate Analysis of Variance |
MCUVE | Monte Carlo uninformative variable elimination |
MDGC | Multidimensional gas chromatography |
MDS | Multidimensional scaling |
MIR | Mid-infrared |
MLR | Multiple linear regression |
MUFAs | Monounsaturated fatty acids |
NIRS | Near-infrared spectroscopy |
NMR | Nuclear magnetic resonance |
OO | Olive oil |
PCA | Principal component analysis |
PDMS/DVB | Polydimethylsiloxane/ Divinylbenzene |
PDO | Protected Designation of Origin |
PLS | Partial least squares regression |
PLS-DA | Partial least square regression-Discriminant analysis |
PLS-R | Partial least. Squares regression |
POA | Palmitoleic acid |
PUFAs | Polyunsaturated fatty acids |
QDA | Quadratic discriminant analysis |
RMSEC | Root means square error of calibration |
RMSECV | Root Mean Square Error of Cross-Validation |
RMSEP | Root Mean Squared Error of Prediction |
RRS | Resonant Raman spectroscopy |
SIMCA | Soft Dependent Modelling of Class Analogies |
SAFA | Saturated fatty acids |
SLDA | Stepwise linear discriminant analysis |
SLRA | Stepwise linear regression analysis |
SPME | Solid phage microextraction |
SVM-C | Support vector machine using parameter C |
VIP | Variable Importance of Projection |
VOO | Virgin olive oil |
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Authors | Method/Sample Preparation | Focus | Chemometrics |
---|---|---|---|
Detection of Adulteration | |||
[7] | FT-NIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Authenticity and adulteration of EVOO with vegetable oils | PLS1 analysis |
[10] | FT-NIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Screening of commercial oils labeled as EVOOs to identify their authenticity | PCA and PLS analysis |
[16] | NIR Raman spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Adulteration with hazelnut oil as well as botanical and geographical discrimination of EVOO | PLS and PCA analysis |
[17] | FT-NIR Raman spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Geographical discrimination and adulteration of EVOO with sunflower oil | PCA analysis |
[18] | Vis-Raman/the method requires no sample preparation | Quantitative determination of EVOO adulteration with sunflower oil | PLS and PCA analysis |
[19] | Raman and visible spectroscopy/ both methods require no sample preparation | Detection of Greek EVOO adulteration with sunflower oil | PLS method |
[20] | Raman spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Detection of adulteration of EVOO with soybean oil | PCA and LDA analysis |
[21] | FT-IR, FT-NIR and Raman spectroscopy/transesterification of the sample | Discrimination of pure olive oil from adulterated olive oil and quantification of the adulterant | PCA, PLS-DA analysis |
[22] | FT-IR/the method requires no sample preparation | Detection of adulteration EVOO with hazelnut oil | DA and PLS |
[23] | FT-IR/the method requires no sample preparation | Detection of EVOO adulteration with canola, hazelnut, pomace and high linoleic/oleic sunflower oils | PLS analysis |
[24] | FT-IR/the method requires no sample preparation/ for the quantification of the adulterant; in EVOO and palm oil mixtures, chloroform was added | Detection of EVOO adulteration with palm oil | PLS and PCR analysis |
[25] | Mid-IR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Detection of adulterated EVOO with sunflower and soybean oil | PLS and PLS-DA analysis |
[26] | MIR-spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Adulteration of EVOO with lampante virgin oil | DA, PLS and PCA analysis. |
[27] | NIR-spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Detection of EVOO adulteration with corn oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil and canola oil | PCA analysis |
[28] | NIR-spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Geographic classification of Argentinian EVOO and detection of adulteration with sunflower, corn and soybean oils | PCA and PLS1-DA analysis |
[29] | FT-NIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Adulteration of EVOO with peanut, sunflower seed oil, soybean, sesame and corn oil | PLS analysis |
[30] | FT-NIR, FT-MIR and Raman spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Adulteration of EVOO with soyabean oil | PLS |
[31] | MIR and NIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Adulteration of EVOO with refined and deodorized oils | PLS analysis |
[32] | FT-NIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Adulteration of EVOO with sunflower, soybean, corn and refined oil | CI and SIMCA model |
[33] | NIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Discrimination of EVOO from lower-quality oils (refined, pomace olive oil) | PCA and SIMCA classification model |
[34] | ATR-FTIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Adulteration of EVOO with sunflower oil | DA, PLS analysis |
[35] | ATR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Adulteration of EVOO with refined soybean oil, refined sunflower oil, refined corn oil and refined canola oil | PLS analysis |
Discrimination According to Geographical-Varietal/Botanical Origin | |||
[36] | Resonant Raman and isotope ratio mass spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Geographical discrimination of EVOO | LDA analysis |
[37] | MIR-spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Geographic classification of Moroccan EVOOs | PCA and PLS-DA analysis |
[38] | MIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Classification of VOO according to their geographical origin | PLS-DA analysis |
[39] | NIR-spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Geographic classification of EVOOs from Eastern Mediterranean | FDA and k-NN method |
[40] | Raman spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Qualitative and quantitate analysis of Andalusian EVOO | PLS-DA analysis |
[41] | NIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Discrimination of VOOs according to their variety | PCA and SIMCA modeling |
[42] | NIR and MIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Discrimination of EVOOs according to their variety | LDA analysis in combination with SIMCA model |
[43] | ATR-FTIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Geographical discrimination of EVOOs | PLS and PCA analysis |
[44] | ATR-FTIR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Botanical discrimination of Greek EVOOs | Stepwise LDA analysis and QDA models |
[45] | FT-IR spectroscopy/the method requires no sample preparation | Geographical discrimination of EVOOs | PLS/LDA and GA/LDA analysis |
Authors | Method | Collection of Volatiles (e.T; i.t;e.t) * | SPME Fiber Type | Focus | Chemometrics |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Detection of Adulteration | |||||
[47] | SPME-MDGC | 70 °C - 5 min | PDMS/DVB | Detection of adulteration of EVOO with hazelnut oil (based on filbertone) derived from unroasted hazelnuts | - |
[48] | SPME/GC-MS | 50 °C - 15 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Adulteration of EVOO with hazelnut oil | PCA analysis |
Discrimination According to Geographic Origin | |||||
[49] | GC-ITMS/SPME | 40 °C 5 min 15 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Geographical discrimination of EVOO | PLS and LDA analysis |
[50] | GC-SPME | 40 °C 10 min 40 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Geographical discrimination of VOOs based on phenols and volatile compounds | Anova and PCA analysis |
[51] | SPME/GC–MS | 40 °C 5 min 60 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Volatile compounds as markers for the geographical differentiation of Spanish EVOO | PCA, LDA and SLDA statistical models |
[52] | HS-SPME-GC-MS | 70 °C 10 min 60 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Geographic authentication of EVOO based on sesquiterpenes profile | PCA, PLS-DA analysis. |
[53] | HS-SPME/GC-FID and GC-MS Analysis | 40 °C - 30 min | CAR/PDMS | Geographical characterization of Italian VOO based on volatile profile | ANOVA, DA, PCA analysis |
[54] | HS-SPME, GC-MS and GC-FID | 25 °C 30 min 50 min | PDMS | Characterization of virgin olive oil according to their geographical origin | ANOVA, PCA and HCA analysis |
[55] | HS-SPME/GC–FID | 25 °C 60 min 90 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Authenticity of VOO (labeled as PDO) with commercial EVOO | PCA analysis and SIMCA classification model |
Discrimination According to Variety/Botanical Origin | |||||
[56] | GCMS-SPME | 40 °C 2 h 30 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Differentiation of Turkish EVOOs varieties | PCA analysis |
[57] | HS-SPME-GC/MS GC-FID | 50 °C 5 min 15 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Cultivar differentiation of Greek olive oil | MANOVA/LDA analysis |
[58] | HS-SPME. GC × GC-TOF-MS 1D-GC–MS | 50 °C 6 min 40 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Virgin olive oil differentiation according to variety and geographical origin | ANOVA, PCA and SLDA analysis |
[59] | HS-SPME/GC-MS | 50 °C 60 min 90 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Comparison of Algerian virgin olive oil in terms of variety and geographical origin | - |
[60] | HS-SPME, GC-MS | 25 °C - 50 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Geographical and varietal discrimination of EVOO based on monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons profile | - |
[61] | DHS-GC | 40 °C - 15 min (sweep with N2) | - | Characterization of VOO varieties according to quantification of volatiles | SLDA analysis |
[9] | SPME-GC–MS | 25 °C - 15 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Triacylglycerols and volatiles of EVOOs different varieties | LDA analysis |
[62] | HS-SPME-GC/MS | 50 °C 5 min 15 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Cultivar and geographical classification of Greek olive oil | ANOVA analysis LDA |
[44] | HS-SPME-GC/MS | 50 °C 30 min 15 min | DVB/CAR/PDMS | Botanical discrimination of Greek EVOOs | stepwise LDA and QDA models |
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Kakouri, E.; Revelou, P.-K.; Kanakis, C.; Daferera, D.; Pappas, C.S.; Tarantilis, P.A. Authentication of the Botanical and Geographical Origin and Detection of Adulteration of Olive Oil Using Gas Chromatography, Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy Techniques: A Review. Foods 2021, 10, 1565. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10071565
Kakouri E, Revelou P-K, Kanakis C, Daferera D, Pappas CS, Tarantilis PA. Authentication of the Botanical and Geographical Origin and Detection of Adulteration of Olive Oil Using Gas Chromatography, Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy Techniques: A Review. Foods. 2021; 10(7):1565. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10071565
Chicago/Turabian StyleKakouri, Eleni, Panagiota-Kyriaki Revelou, Charalabos Kanakis, Dimitra Daferera, Christos S. Pappas, and Petros A. Tarantilis. 2021. "Authentication of the Botanical and Geographical Origin and Detection of Adulteration of Olive Oil Using Gas Chromatography, Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy Techniques: A Review" Foods 10, no. 7: 1565. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10071565