Elucidating Amendment Resources for Reclaiming Efficacy of Sodic Soils around Abaya and Chamo Lakes, South Ethiopia Rift Valley
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Descriptions of the Study Location and Climate
2.2. Soil Sampling and Preparation
2.3. Laboratory Analysis for Irrigation Water Quality
2.4. Amendments Preparation and Application
2.5. Experimental Design, Treatments and Laboratory Analysis
2.6. Data Analysis
- μ: overall mean;
- Ai: the effect of ith % (GYP: 0, 50, 100, and 150);
- Bj: the effect of jth ton/ha (FYM: 0, 10, 20 and 30);
- ABij: interaction of the effect of ith GYP and jth FYM;
- eij: error.
- α = intercept;
- X1, X2, X3, … Xn = the amendment level (GYP + FYM) used to reclaim sodic soil;
- β1, β2, β3, … βn = regression coefficient of the independent variables X1, X2, X3, … Xn;
- ej = residual error.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Initial Soil and Irrigation Water Laboratory Analysis
3.2. Effects of Gypsum and Farmyard Manure on Chemical Properties of Sodic Soil under Incubation and Leaching Study
3.2.1. Soil pH and Electrical Conductivity
3.2.2. Soil Exchangeable Cations (Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, and K+)
3.2.3. Soil Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)
3.3. Soil Color Change
3.4. Multivariate Analysis of Combined Application of Gypsum and Farmyard Manure Effect on Sodic Soil Chemical Properties under Incubation and Leaching Study
3.4.1. Correlation between Chemical Properties of Reclaimed Sodic Soil
3.4.2. Prediction of Exchangeable Sodium Percentages (ESP)
3.4.3. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) of Reclaimed Sodic Soil Chemical Properties Concerning Different Gypsum and Farmyard Manure Treatments
3.4.4. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis of Reclaimed Sodic Soils’ Chemical Properties Concerning Different Gypsum and Farmyard Manure Treatments
3.4.5. K-Means Clustering of Reclaimed Sodic Soils’ Chemical Properties Concerning Different Gypsum and Farmyard Manure Treatments
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soil | Irrigation Water | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parameter | Units | Value | Parameter | Units | Value |
Texture | --- | Heavy Clay | pH | ----- | 8.3 |
Clay | % | 64 | ECw | dS m−1 | 1.184 |
Silt | % | 30 | Na+ | mg L−1 | 17.96 |
Sand | % | 6 | K+ | mg L−1 | 3.90 |
Bulk Density | gcm−3 | 1.4 | Ca2+ | mg L−1 | 26.20 |
Gypsum Requirement | tons ha−1 | 10 | Mg2+ | mg L−1 | 13.56 |
Farmyard Manure | tons ha−1 | 20 | Cl− | meq L−1 | 0.45 |
pH | ----- | 10.6 | CO32− | meq L−1 | Nil |
EC | dSm−1 | 3.5 | HCO3− | meq L−1 | 2.46 |
Ex. Na | cmol(+) kg−1 | 48 | PO43− | meq L−1 | Nil |
Ex. K | cmol(+) kg−1 | 1.16 | NO3− | meq L−1 | 1 |
Ex. Ca | cmol(+) kg−1 | 3.19 | NO2− | meq L−1 | 1 |
Ex. Mg | cmol(+) kg−1 | 2.18 | SO42− | meq L−1 | 0.46 |
CEC | cmol(+) kg−1 | 52.1 | Salinity | % (ppt) | 0.59 |
ESP | % | 95 | SAR | ---- | 1.04 |
SAR | --- | 37.1 | RSC | meq L−1 | 0.02 |
GYP (%) | FYM t ha−1 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Treatments | pH | Ex. Ca | Ex. K | Treatments | PH | Ex. Ca | Ex. K |
0 | 9.86 | 7.15 c | 0.6 | 0 | 9.86 | 9.59 | 0.52 b |
50 | 9.81 | 8.79 b | 0.6 | 10 | 9.77 | 9.79 | 0.68 a |
100 | 9.86 | 10.64 a | 0.55 | 20 | 9.78 | 8.96 | 0.52 b |
150 | 9.65 | 11.69 a | 0.53 | 30 | 9.77 | 9.94 | 0.56 b |
LSD (0.05) | ns | 1.31 | ns | LSD (0.05) | ns | ns | 0.09 |
CV% | 2.6 | 24 | 23 | CV% | 2.7 | 30 | 20 |
GYP (%) | FYM (t ha−1) | EC | Ex. Na | Ex. Mg | SAR | ESP |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 0 | 11.84 ab | 4.12 ab | 4.29 cd | 1.81 a | 1.66 a |
10 | 11.32 abc | 2.94 cde | 4.13 cd | 1.28 bcdef | 0.80 bcdef | |
20 | 11.24 abc | 4.41 a | 8.15 ab | 1.75 ab | 1.57 ab | |
30 | 9.33 d | 4.42 a | 7.72 ab | 1.70 ab | 1.49 ab | |
50 | 0 | 11.83 a | 4.32 a | 6.73 b | 1.59 abc | 1.31 abc |
10 | 11.09 ab | 4.35 a | 7.88 ab | 1.58 abc | 1.29 abc | |
20 | 11.12 abc | 3.10 bcde | 7.24 b | 1.17 cdef | 0.63 cdef | |
30 | 10.18 bcd | 2.99 cd | 10.11 a | 1.04 def | 0.42 def | |
100 | 0 | 11.14 abc | 2.58 e | 6.84 b | 0.87 f | 0.15 f |
10 | 10.79 abcd | 2.56 e | 7.99 ab | 0.86 f | 0.13 f | |
20 | 10.84 abcd | 4.00 abc | 3.85 d | 1.52 abcd | 1.19 abcd | |
30 | 11.99 a | 3.91 abcd | 6.12 bc | 1.47 abcde | 1.11 abcde | |
150 | 0 | 11.97 a | 2.90 d | 8.10 ab | 0.97 ef | 0.31 ef |
10 | 10.97 abc | 2.93 cde | 7.96 ab | 0.97 ef | 0.30 ef | |
20 | 10.05 cd | 2.83 de | 3.42 d | 1.14 cdef | 0.57 cdef | |
30 | 10.25 bcd | 2.77 e | 3.48 d | 0.97 ef | 0.31 ef | |
LSD (0.05) | 1.42 | 0.97 | 2.18 | 0.46 | 0.74 | |
CV (%) | 7.26 | 16.91 | 20 | 21.16 | 53.75 |
pH | EC | Ex. Na | Ex. Ca | Ex. Mg | Ex. K | ESP | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | 1.00 | ||||||
EC | 0.46 | 1.00 | |||||
Ex. Na | 0.47 | 0.14 | 1.00 | ||||
Ex. Ca | −0.49 | −0.16 | −0.68 ** | 1.00 | |||
Ex. Mg | 0.30 | −0.01 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 1.00 | ||
Ex. K | 0.15 | −0.02 | 0.12 | −0.18 | 0.63 ** | 1.00 | |
ESP | 0.47 | 0.15 | 0.95 ** | −0.82 ** | −0.13 | 0.03 | 1.00 |
Treatment (Gyp% + FYM t/ha) | Model | I(α) β1X1 β2X2 | R2 | F Value | Pr > F |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gyp100 + FYM10 | ESP | 1.65–0.33GYP | 0.255 | 15.78 | 0.000 |
Gyp100 + FYM10 | ESP | 1.58–0.33GYP + 0.28FYM | 0.257 | 7.79 | 0.001 |
Gyp100 + FYM10 | Ex. Na | 4.387–0.377GYP | 0.234 | 14.09 | 0.000 |
Gyp100 + FYM10 | Ex. Na | 4.387–0.377GYP + 0.052FYM | 0.239 | 7.0 | 0.002 |
Gyp100 + FYM10 | Ex.Ca | 5.69 + 1.55GYP | 0.038 | 28.33 | 0.000 |
Gyp100 + FYM10 | Ex. Ca | 5.65 + 1.55GYP + 0.020FYM | 0.038 | 13.8 | 0.000 |
PCA | Loading Matrix | PCA | Formatted Loading Matrix | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prin1 | Prin2 | Prin3 | Prin1 | Prin2 | Prin3 | ||
Eigenvalue | 4.01 | 1.74 | 1.15 | Eigenvalue | 4.01 | 1.74 | 1.15 |
Variance (%) | 50.09 | 21.78 | 14.38 | Variance (%) | 50.09 | 21.78 | 14.38 |
Cumulative variance (%) | 50.09 | 71.87 | 86.25 | Cumulative variance (%) | 50.09 | 71.87 | 86.25 |
pH | 0.64 | 0.34 | 0.48 | ESP | 0.97 | −0.18 | −0.14 |
EC | 0.29 | 0.10 | 0.88 | SAR | 0.97 | −0.18 | −0.14 |
Ex. Na | 0.93 | −0.04 | −0.17 | Ex. Na | 0.93 | −0.04 | −0.17 |
Ex. Ca | −0.87 | 0.00 | 0.10 | pH | 0.64 | 0.34 | 0.48 |
Ex. Mg | 0.02 | 0.92 | −0.09 | Ex. Mg | 0.02 | 0.92 | −0.09 |
Ex. K | 0.15 | 0.83 | −0.27 | Ex. K | 0.15 | 0.83 | −0.27 |
SAR | 0.97 | −0.18 | −0.14 | EC | 0.29 | 0.10 | 0.88 |
ESP | 0.97 | −0.18 | −0.14 | Ex. Ca | −0.87 | 0.00 | 0.10 |
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Walche, A.; Haile, W.; Kiflu, A.; Tsegaye, D. Elucidating Amendment Resources for Reclaiming Efficacy of Sodic Soils around Abaya and Chamo Lakes, South Ethiopia Rift Valley. Toxics 2024, 12, 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040265
Walche A, Haile W, Kiflu A, Tsegaye D. Elucidating Amendment Resources for Reclaiming Efficacy of Sodic Soils around Abaya and Chamo Lakes, South Ethiopia Rift Valley. Toxics. 2024; 12(4):265. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040265
Chicago/Turabian StyleWalche, Azmera, Wassie Haile, Alemayehu Kiflu, and Dereje Tsegaye. 2024. "Elucidating Amendment Resources for Reclaiming Efficacy of Sodic Soils around Abaya and Chamo Lakes, South Ethiopia Rift Valley" Toxics 12, no. 4: 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040265
APA StyleWalche, A., Haile, W., Kiflu, A., & Tsegaye, D. (2024). Elucidating Amendment Resources for Reclaiming Efficacy of Sodic Soils around Abaya and Chamo Lakes, South Ethiopia Rift Valley. Toxics, 12(4), 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040265