Radiation Dosimetry by Use of Radiosensitive Hydrogels and Polymers: Mechanisms, State-of-the-Art and Perspective from 3D to 4D
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- A high dose resolution: The dose resolution is defined as the minimum dose difference that will be detected by the dosimeter with high certainty (e.g., 95%). The dose resolution depends on both the dose sensitivity of the dosimeter and the readout technique (i.e., the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio).
- A high temporal stability and a high spatial integrity. This means that the dose reading should be stable over time and the acquired dose distribution should not change over time. Sources of instability are related to the reaction kinetics, which ideally should be fast. The spatial integrity in chemical dosimeters may be compromised because of the diffusion of chemicals in the gel during and/or after radiation.
- As the dosimeter acts as a surrogate for the human body, the dosimeter should be tissue equivalent. The attenuation of the radiation beam by the dosimeter should be similar to human tissue. For high energetic photon radiation, this is mostly satisfied if the electron density of the dosimeter is close to that of the tissue. The tissue equivalence should be guaranteed over a large range of photon energies to cover the photon energy spectrum of linear accelerators (linacs) and other kinds of radiation, such as brachytherapy and orthovoltage treatments.
- Temperature independent dose response: The dose response of the dosimeter should not depend on the temperature during radiation, after radiation or during scanning. Dose-rate independence: In a typical clinical dose distribution both the accumulated absorbed dose and the dose rate are not uniquely correlated. In most clinical dose distributions, the dose rate in one location varies during the treatment. If the dose response was dependent on the dose rate, a similar dose delivered at a different dose rate would result in a different dose reading. It is important to note that even for a single beam, the dose rate varies significantly in depth and in the penumbra region.
- Energy independence: Most linacs deliver photon radiation beams, of which the photon energy covers a large range of energies. Three dimensional dosimeters can also be employed for dosimetry of orthovoltage, brachytherapy and electron radiation. It is, therefore, desirable that the dosimeter is energy independent.
- Linear energy transfer (LET) independence: LET independence is especially important for particle therapy. In particle beams, the LET varies which reaches a maximum near the end of the Bragg peak. The high LET in the Bragg peak makes it challenging for chemical dosimetry as recombination effects often lead to an underestimation of the dose.
- Long shelf life: While a long shelf life is no ultimate requirement, the ability to store 3D dosimeters in a clinical medical physics unit for when they are needed makes them more attractive in a clinical setting. Factors that affect the dose response of chemical 3D dosimeters are related to chemical decomposition, auto-oxidation, thermal reactions between chemical components and evaporation of chemicals from the dosimeter. For commercial off-the-shelf 3D dosimeters, it is also important to consider any effects of environmental fluctuations (temperature, pressure, exposure to light) during transport on the dose response.
2. Fricke Gel Dosimeters
2.1. Fricke Solutions
2.2. Radiation Chemistry and Chemical Yield
2.3. MRI Contrast Mechanism and Dose Sensitivity
- (1)
- dipole–dipole interactions between the ion electron spin S and proton nuclear spin I, characterized by a correlation time τc, which by itself is constituted of the three temporal magnetic field modulation times (τR, τM and τS) (see Figure 2). The dipole–dipole interaction term is a short-range interaction that is inversely proportional to the sixth power of the distance between the center of the ion and the water hydrogen protons.
- (2)
- Another interaction term involves the weaker scalar coupling. The scalar coupling correlation time contains both the residence time τM and electron relaxation time τS.
- (3)
- A third contribution comes from the water molecules in the outer coordination sphere that experience a diffusion weighting with diffusion correlation time where d is the closest distance of approach between the ion and the hydrogen aFtom, is the diffusion coefficient of the water molecule and is the diffusion coefficient of the ion.
2.4. Applications of Fricke Gel Dosimeters
3. Radiochromic Gel Dosimeters
3.1. Micelle Gel Dosimeters
3.2. Turnbull-Blue Gel Dosimeters
3.3. TruView™ and ClearView™
3.4. PVA–Iodide Gel Dosimeters
3.5. D Plastic and Elastomer Dosimeters
3.6. Radio-Fluorogenic Dosimeters
4. Polymer Gel Dosimeters
4.1. Radiation Chemistry
4.2. MRI Contrast Mechanism and Dose Sensitivity
4.3. Radiation Properties
4.3.1. Stability
4.3.2. Spatial Integrity
4.3.3. Dose-Rate Dependent Dose-R2 Response
4.3.4. Oxygen Contamination
4.4. Applications of Polymer Gel Dosimeters
4.4.1. Intensity Modulated Treatments
4.4.2. Stereotactic Radiosurgery and Gamma Knife
4.4.3. Brachytherapy
4.4.4. Proton and Ion Therapy
4.4.5. Boron Neutron Capture Therapy
4.4.6. Dosimetry near Non-Water-Equivalent Tissues
4.4.7. Diagnostic Radiation Dosimetry
4.4.8. Radionuclide Dosimetry
5. Readout Systems
5.1. MRI Scanning
5.1.1. R1 Mapping
- 1.
- Spin echo (SE), gradient echo (GE) and rapid acquisition with relaxation enhancement (RARE) sequences: The repetitive sequence blocks in a SE sequence take the shape:
- 2.
- Saturation and inversion recovery sequences: A second class of pulse sequences that can be employed to map R1 are the saturation and inversion recovery sequences. The saturation recovery sequence is of the form:
- 3.
- Look-Locker sequences: A fast sequence to acquire R1 maps is the Look-Locker sequence [321], of which the sequence building block takes the shape of Equation (44).
- 4.
- Steady-state free precession sequences: A sequence of RF pulse excitations separated by a time TR brings the NMR signal in a steady state. In between two successive pulses the frequency encoding gradients can be placed in such a way that two echoes are obtained.
5.1.2. R2 Mapping
5.1.3. MT Mapping
5.1.4. Other MRI Techniques
5.2. Optical CT Scanning
5.3. X-ray CT Scanning
5.4. Other Scanning Methods
6. Uncertainty in 3D Radiation Dosimetry
7. Towards 4D Radiation Dosimetry
8. Conclusions and Outlook to the Future
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Radiolytic Products | Neutral pH | 0.8 N H2SO4 Aqueous Solution | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
G (Part./100 eV) | G (µmol.J−1) | G (Part./100 eV) | G (µmol.J−1) | |
2.65 | 0.274 | 3.7 a | 0.38 a | |
H• | 0.6 | 0.062 | ||
0.45 | 0.047 | 0.4 | 0.041 | |
0.68 | 0.070 | 0.8 | 0.083 | |
OH• | 2.8 | 0.29 | 2.9 | 0.30 |
4.15 | 0.43 | 4.5 | 0.47 |
Factor | Agarose | Gelatine |
---|---|---|
Chemical properties | ||
Gelling agent | [10,112,116] | [111,113,118,119] |
pH, [H2SO4] | [110,112] | [113,118,119] |
Initial Fe2+ concentration | [110,112] | [120] |
NaCl | [117] | [121] |
Other additives (saccharides) | [10,115,117] | [113] |
O2 | [110,111,112] | [113,121] |
Cooling rate | [110] | |
Radiation properties | ||
Post-irradiation time | [110] | [113,121] |
Dose rate | [111,112] | |
Beam energy | [110,122] | [122] |
Tissue equivalence | [110,122] | [122] |
NMR properties | ||
NMR frequency | [112] | [113] |
Multi-exponential relaxation | [123] |
Monomer | Chemical Formula | D1/2 (Gy) | R2-Dose Sensitivity (s−1.Gy−1) | R2sat-R20 (s−1.Gy−1) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acrylamide (AAm) | 5.5 (±0.1) | 0.331 (±0.012) | 4.2 (±0.4) | [45] | |
1-Vinyl-2-Pyrrolidone (VP) | 23.6 (±0.1) | 0.082 (±0.004) | 13.7 (±0.4) | [31,234] | |
2-Hydroxyethyl Acrylate (HEA) | 5.5 (±0.1) | 0.498 (±0.003) | 4.2 (±0.4) | [31,45,235] | |
2-Hydroxyethyl Methacrylate (HEMA) | 41.6 (±0.1) | 0.046 (±0.002) | 4.9 (±0.4) | [31] | |
N-iso-propyl-acrylamide (NIPAM) | 10 | 0.13 (±0.012) | 4.2 (±0.4) | [236] | |
N,N’-methylene-Bis-acrylamide (Bis) | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | |
Acrylic Acid (AAc) | 31.2 (±0.1) | 0.358 (±0.006) | 10.6 (±0.4) | [31] | |
Methacrylic Acid (MAc) | 12.5 (±0.1) | 1.193 (±0.048) | 18.4 (±0.4) | [31,43,45] |
Gel Type | Stability | Spatial Integrity | Dose Rate | Energy | Temp. Irradiation | Temp. Scanning | Temp. Fabric./Shelf Life | Tissue Equiv. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PAG | [28,43,45,51] | [43,45,47] | [43] | [43,240] | [43] | [43,50,61,241] | [43,242] | |
AAG | [243] | [243] | ||||||
PAGAT | [43,55] | [43,55] | [43] | [43] | [23,43] | [43] | [23,44] | [43,45] |
MAGAT | [43] | [43] | [43] | [43] | [43] | [43] | [44] | [43,240] |
MAGIC | [45] | [45] | [49] | [240] | ||||
ABAGIC | [45] | [45] | ||||||
NIPAM | [244] | [245] | [245] | |||||
VIPAR | [246] | [246] | [246] | [246] | ||||
VIPARnd | [247] | [247] | [247] | [247] | ||||
NIBMAGAT | [248] | [248] | ||||||
NHMAGAT | [249] | [249,250] | [249,250] | [250] | ||||
MAGADIT | [251] | |||||||
PAMPSGAT | [252,253] | [254] | [254] | [252,253] | [252,253,254] | |||
NMPAGAT | [255,256] | [255] | [256] | [256] | [256] |
- Composition Polymer Gel Type (acronyms).
- PAG: Acrylamide (AAm)/N,N’-methylene-Bis-Acrylamide (Bis)/Gelatine/Nitrogen purged.
- AAG: Acrylic Acid (AAc)/Bis/Gelatine/NaOH.
- PAGAT: AAm/Bis/Gelatine/Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium salt (THP).
- MAGAT: Methacrylic acid (MAc)/Gelatine/THP.
- MAGIC: MAc/Gelatine/Ascorbic acid (AscA)/Copper sulphate/(hydroquinone (HQ)).
- ABAGIC: AAm/Bis/Gelatine/AscA/Copper sulphate.
- NIPAM: N-isopropylacrylamide/Bis/Gelatine/(THP).
- VIPAR: N-vinylpyrrolidine (NVP)/Bis/Gelatine/Nitrogen or Argon purged/(isopropanol).
- VIPARnd: NVP/Bis/Gelatine/AscA/Copper sulphate/(isopropanol)/(tert-butanol)/(HQ).
- NIBMAGAT: N-isobutoxymethylacrylamide (NIBMA)/Bis/Gelatine/THP/(glycerol, acetone, methanol).
- NHMAGAT: N-(hydroxymethyl)acrylamide (NHMA)/Bis/Gelatine/THP/(CaCl2).
- MAGADIT: MAc/Gelatine/Dithiothreitol (oxygen scavenger).
- PAMPSGAT: 2-Acrylamido 2-Methyl Propane Sulfonic acid (AMPS) or salt/Bis/Gelatine/THP/NaOH.
- NMPAGAT: N-(3-Methoxypropyl)acrylamide (NMPA)/Bis/Gelatine/Glycerol/THP.
Geometrical Distortions | Dose Inaccuracies | ||
Machine Related | Object Related | Machine Related | Object Related |
Magnetic field Heterogeneity | Magnetic susceptibility differences | Eddy currents | Temperature drift |
Magnetic gradient non-uniformity | Chemical shifts | Stimulated echoes | Molecular self-diffusion |
Eddy currents | RF-field inhomogeneity | ||
Imperfect slice profile | |||
Standing waves |
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De Deene, Y. Radiation Dosimetry by Use of Radiosensitive Hydrogels and Polymers: Mechanisms, State-of-the-Art and Perspective from 3D to 4D. Gels 2022, 8, 599. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8090599
De Deene Y. Radiation Dosimetry by Use of Radiosensitive Hydrogels and Polymers: Mechanisms, State-of-the-Art and Perspective from 3D to 4D. Gels. 2022; 8(9):599. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8090599
Chicago/Turabian StyleDe Deene, Yves. 2022. "Radiation Dosimetry by Use of Radiosensitive Hydrogels and Polymers: Mechanisms, State-of-the-Art and Perspective from 3D to 4D" Gels 8, no. 9: 599. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8090599