Biomimetics

3 pages, 145 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCI): Challenges and Opportunities

by Yuchun Wang, Minyan Ge and Shumao Xu

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020157 - 22 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1547

It appears that the frontier of neural engineering is rapidly advancing towards seamless integration between biological neural networks and digital systems [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCI): Challenges and Opportunities)

21 pages, 3802 KB

Open AccessArticle

Yaw Control Strategies Through Flow Structuring in Carangid C-Type Maneuvers

by Yuansen Liu, Fei Li, Tianyu Gao, Shiyu Qian, Xiaolin Zheng and Yongliang Yu

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020156 - 20 Feb 2026

Viewed by 484

Abstract

C-type maneuvers (abbreviated as C-turns), a crucial escape response from for carangiform fish, are investigated to elucidate their yaw control mechanism. High-speed photography coupled with image processing was used to quantify the time-varying midline curvature during C-turns of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). Self-propelled [...] Read more.

C-type maneuvers (abbreviated as C-turns), a crucial escape response from for carangiform fish, are investigated to elucidate their yaw control mechanism. High-speed photography coupled with image processing was used to quantify the time-varying midline curvature during C-turns of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). Self-propelled simulations replicated the motion, resolving the evolving vorticity field and pressure gradients. Statistical analyses revealed a pronounced linear correlation between body deformation and total turning angle for yaw angles exceeding 60°. Notably, large-angle turns (>140°) exhibited both higher initial speed and sustained greater mean speed throughout the maneuver, indicating that achieving substantial yaw not only relies on enhanced body deformation, but also, critically, on inertial dominance persisting throughout the unsteady hydrodynamic interaction. The vortex dynamics and pressure distributions obtained form simulations corroborate the inferred control strategy rooted in this inertial dominance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Inspired Underwater Propulsion: Actuation, Sensing, Processing and Control)

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14 pages, 2202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biomimetic Surface Modification of Dental Zirconia via UV Irradiation for Enhanced Aesthetics and Wettability

by Fengdan Pan, Xuedong Bai, Mengxiao Xu, Yanning Chen, Jiali Yu, Chi-Wai Kan, Shixin Jin and James Kit Hon Tsoi

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020155 - 20 Feb 2026

Viewed by 478

Abstract

Zirconia is a material that mimics human teeth and has been extensively studied and applied. This study investigated the surface modifications of dental zirconia induced by two UV-C wavelengths (222 and 254 nm). A total of 72 zirconia specimens were prepared and divided [...] Read more.

Zirconia is a material that mimics human teeth and has been extensively studied and applied. This study investigated the surface modifications of dental zirconia induced by two UV-C wavelengths (222 and 254 nm). A total of 72 zirconia specimens were prepared and divided into groups for irradiation at varying distances (1, 6, 12 cm) and durations (40, 120, 480 and 1440 min), with three specimens retained as untreated controls. Surface changes were assessed by measuring colour difference (ΔE) and water contact angle, and by analyzing surface morphology and elemental composition using SEM and EDX, and XRD was employed to determine the crystalline structure. The results showed that both wavelengths induced clinically perceptible colour changes (ΔE > 2.0), with the most pronounced effect at 6 cm for 222 nm and 1 cm for 254 nm. WCA decreased significantly with irradiation time, showing a linear correlation with log(time), and 222 nm irradiation yielded lower WCA than 254 nm. While SEM revealed no morphological changes, both UV treatments significantly increased the Zr/O ratio compared to the control. XRD tests confirmed that UV-C irradiation does not damage the zirconium oxide crystal structure. It is concluded that both UV-C wavelengths can alter the colour and enhance the wettability of zirconia; these modifications are particularly relevant for dental restorative applications, specifically in the fabrication of anterior tooth crowns, where achieving a natural tooth-like appearance is desired. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Biomimetic Materials in Regenerative and Restorative Dentistry)

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29 pages, 3439 KB

Open AccessArticle

HCHS-Net: A Multimodal Handcrafted Feature and Metadata Framework for Interpretable Skin Lesion Classification

by Ahmet Solak

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020154 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 617

Abstract

Accurate and timely classification of skin lesions is critical for early cancer detection, yet current deep learning approaches suffer from high computational costs, limited interpretability, and poor transparency for clinical deployment. This study presents HCHS-Net, a lightweight and interpretable multimodal framework for six-class [...] Read more.

Accurate and timely classification of skin lesions is critical for early cancer detection, yet current deep learning approaches suffer from high computational costs, limited interpretability, and poor transparency for clinical deployment. This study presents HCHS-Net, a lightweight and interpretable multimodal framework for six-class skin lesion classification on the PAD-UFES-20 dataset. The proposed framework extracts a 116-dimensional visual feature vector through three complementary handcrafted modules: a Color Module employing multi-channel histogram analysis to capture chromatic diagnostic patterns, a Haralick Module deriving texture descriptors from the gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) that quantify surface characteristics correlated with malignancy, and a Shape Module encoding morphological properties via Hu moment invariants aligned with the clinical ABCD rule. The architectural design of HCHS-Net adopts a biomimetic approach by emulating the hierarchical information processing of the human visual system and the cognitive diagnostic workflows of expert dermatologists. Unlike conventional black-box deep learning models, this framework employs parallel processing branches that simulate the selective attention mechanisms of the human eye by focusing on biologically significant visual cues such as chromatic variance, textural entropy, and morphological asymmetry. These visual features are concatenated with a 12-dimensional clinical metadata vector encompassing patient demographics and lesion characteristics, yielding a compact 128-dimensional multimodal representation. Classification is performed through an ensemble of three gradient boosting algorithms (XGBoost, LightGBM, CatBoost) with majority voting. HCHS-Net achieves 97.76% classification accuracy with only 0.25 M parameters, outperforming deep learning baselines, including VGG-16 (94.60%), ResNet-50 (94.80%), and EfficientNet-B2 (95.16%), which require 60–97× more parameters. The framework delivers an inference time of 0.11 ms per image, enabling real-time classification on standard CPUs without GPU acceleration. Ablation analysis confirms the complementary contribution of each feature module, with metadata integration providing a 2.53% accuracy gain. The model achieves perfect melanoma and nevus recall (100%) with 99.55% specificity, maintaining reliable discrimination at safety-critical diagnostic boundaries. Comprehensive benchmarking against 13 published methods demonstrates that domain-informed handcrafted features combined with clinical metadata can match or exceed deep learning fusion approaches while offering superior interpretability and computational efficiency for point-of-care deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bioinspired Sensorics, Information Processing and Control)

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25 pages, 5373 KB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Control of Nonlinear Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors Using an Enhanced Nature-Inspired Optimizer and Fractional-Order Controller

by Serdar Ekinci, Davut Izci, Aysha Almeree, Vedat Tümen, Veysel Gider, Ivaylo Stoyanov and Mostafa Jabari

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020153 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 653

Abstract

The temperature regulation of nonlinear continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) processes remains a challenging control problem due to strong nonlinearities, time-delay effects, and sensitivity to disturbances and parameter variations. Conventional proportional–integral–derivative (PID)-based control strategies often fail to provide the robustness and precision required [...] Read more.

The temperature regulation of nonlinear continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) processes remains a challenging control problem due to strong nonlinearities, time-delay effects, and sensitivity to disturbances and parameter variations. Conventional proportional–integral–derivative (PID)-based control strategies often fail to provide the robustness and precision required under such conditions, motivating the use of more flexible controller structures and advanced optimization techniques. In this study, an enhanced joint-opposition artificial lemming algorithm (JOS-ALA) is proposed for the optimal tuning of a fractional-order PID (FOPID) controller applied to CSTR temperature control. The proposed JOS-ALA incorporates a joint opposite selection mechanism into the original ALA to improve population diversity, convergence stability, and resistance to local optima stagnation. A nonlinear CSTR model is linearized around a stable operating point, and the resulting model is employed for controller design and optimization. The FOPID controller parameters are tuned by minimizing a composite cost function that simultaneously accounts for tracking accuracy, overshoot suppression, and instantaneous error behavior. The effectiveness of the proposed approach is assessed through extensive simulation studies and benchmarked against state-of-the-art and high-performance metaheuristic optimizers, including ALA, electric eel foraging optimization (EEFO), linear population size reduction success-history based adaptive differential evolution (L-SHADE), and the improved artificial electric field algorithm (iAEFA). The benchmarking set is further extended with the success rate-based adaptive differential evolution variant (L-SRTDE) to broaden the comparative evaluation. Simulation results demonstrate that the JOS-ALA-based FOPID controller consistently achieves superior performance across multiple criteria. Specifically, it attains the lowest mean cost function value of 0.1959, eliminates overshoot, and yields a normalized steady-state error of 4.7290 × 10⁻⁴. In addition, faster transient response and improved robustness under external disturbances and measurement noise are observed when compared with competing methods. Statistical reliability of the observed performance differences is additionally examined using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test conducted over 25 independent runs. The resulting p-values confirm that the improvements achieved by the proposed approach are statistically significant at the 5% level across all pairwise algorithm comparisons. These findings indicate that the proposed JOS-ALA provides an effective and reliable optimization framework for high-precision temperature control in nonlinear CSTR systems and offers strong potential for broader application in complex process control problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bioinspired Sensorics, Information Processing and Control)

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13 pages, 1253 KB

Open AccessArticle

Single-Cone vs. Carrier-Based Root Canal Obturation with a Calcium-Silicate-Based Sealer: An In Vitro µ-CT Analysis

by Vincenzo Tosco, Riccardo Monterubbianesi, Michele Furlani, Andrea Spinelli, Fausto Zamparini and Giovanna Orsini

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020152 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 617

Abstract

The introduction of calcium-silicate-based sealers has renewed interest in simplified obturation protocols such as the single-cone technique, although warm techniques, including carrier-based obturation, are still considered the gold standard. The aim of this in vitro study was to compare the quality of root [...] Read more.

The introduction of calcium-silicate-based sealers has renewed interest in simplified obturation protocols such as the single-cone technique, although warm techniques, including carrier-based obturation, are still considered the gold standard. The aim of this in vitro study was to compare the quality of root canal obturation achieved with single-cone and carrier-based techniques when used with the same calcium-silicate-based sealer. Thirty extracted mandibular molars were prepared using a standardized rotary instrumentation protocol and randomly assigned to two groups (n = 15 each): Group A was obturated using a carrier-based technique (Soft-Core obturators), while Group B was obturated with the single-cone technique. All canals were filled with the same calcium-silicate-based sealer (NeoSEALER Flo). Micro–computed tomography was used to evaluate the number and volume of voids of the obturation. Quantitative analysis showed that Group A exhibited a significantly lower number of voids (9.0 ± 5.0) and reduced total void volume (2.58 ± 0.8 mm³) compared with Group B (22.0 ± 10.1 voids; 4.71 ± 1.1 mm³; p = 0.00002 and p = 0.0026, respectively). Qualitative analysis confirmed that carrier-based obturation achieved a denser and more homogeneous filling, while the single-cone technique showed larger voids mainly in the coronal and middle thirds. Both techniques provided a reliable apical seal. Within the limitations of this in vitro study, carrier-based obturation demonstrated superior overall filling quality compared with the single-cone technique when used with a calcium-silicate-based sealer, particularly in the middle and coronal regions of the root canal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dentistry and Craniofacial District: The Role of Biomimetics 2026)

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17 pages, 4699 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interactive Teleoperation of an Articulated Robotic Arm Using Vision-Based Human Hand Tracking

by Marius-Valentin Drăgoi, Aurel-Viorel Frimu, Andrei Postelnicu, Roxana-Adriana Puiu, Gabriel Petrea and Alexandru Hank

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020151 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 679

Abstract

Interactive teleoperation offers an intuitive pathway for human–robot interaction, yet many existing systems rely on dedicated sensors or wearable devices, limiting accessibility and scalability. This paper presents a vision-based teleoperation framework that enables real-time control of an articulated robotic arm (five joints plus [...] Read more.

Interactive teleoperation offers an intuitive pathway for human–robot interaction, yet many existing systems rely on dedicated sensors or wearable devices, limiting accessibility and scalability. This paper presents a vision-based teleoperation framework that enables real-time control of an articulated robotic arm (five joints plus a gripper actuator) using human hand tracking from a single, typical laptop camera. Hand pose and gesture information are extracted using a real-time landmark estimation pipeline, and a set of compact kinematic descriptors—palm position, apparent hand scale, wrist rotation, hand pitch, and pinch gesture—are mapped to robotic joint commands through a calibration-based control strategy. Commands are transmitted over a lightweight network interface to an embedded controller that executes synchronized servo actuation. To enhance stability and usability, temporal smoothing and rate-limited updates are employed to mitigate jitter while preserving responsiveness. In a human-in-the-loop evaluation with 42 participants, the system achieved an 88% success rate (37/42), with a completion time of 53.48 ± 18.51 s, a placement error of 6.73 ± 3.11 cm for successful trials (n = 37), and an ease-of-use score of 2.67 ± 1.20 on a 1–5 scale. Results indicate that the proposed approach enables feasible interactive teleoperation without specialized hardware, supporting its potential as a low-cost platform for robotic manipulation, education, and rapid prototyping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Bioinspired Robot and Intelligent Systems)

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45 pages, 5401 KB

Open AccessReview

Virus Biomimetic-Delivery Systems for the Production of Vaccines

by Marcela-Elisabeta Barbinta-Patrascu, Irina Negut and Bogdan Bita

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020150 - 18 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1083

Abstract

The persistent emergence of infectious diseases has underscored the critical demand for next-generation vaccine technologies that are safe, effective, and scalable. This review explores virus biomimetic delivery systems, focusing on virus-like particles (VLPs) and virosomes as promising platforms for vaccine and therapeutic development. [...] Read more.

The persistent emergence of infectious diseases has underscored the critical demand for next-generation vaccine technologies that are safe, effective, and scalable. This review explores virus biomimetic delivery systems, focusing on virus-like particles (VLPs) and virosomes as promising platforms for vaccine and therapeutic development. VLPs are self-assembled nanostructures composed of viral structural proteins that mimic native virions without carrying genetic material, while virosomes are reconstituted viral envelopes that retain functional glycoproteins but lack a nucleocapsid. Both systems provide strong immunogenicity and safety by mimicking viral architecture while eliminating the risk of replication. The paper examines various expression platforms for VLP production, including bacterial, yeast, insect, mammalian, and plant-based systems, highlighting their respective advantages, challenges, and optimization strategies. Mechanistic insights into antigen presentation, immune activation, and cellular uptake pathways are discussed to explain their superior performance in eliciting humoral and cellular immune responses. Furthermore, current applications of VLPs and virosomes in vaccines against major pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2, influenza, Newcastle disease virus, malaria, hepatitis, and respiratory syncytial virus are reviewed, demonstrating their versatility and clinical potential. By integrating molecular engineering, nanotechnology, and biofabrication strategies, virus biomimetic systems represent a transformative frontier in vaccinology, immunotherapy, and targeted drug delivery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biogenic and Biomimetic Materials: From Bionanomedicine to Environmental Applications and Beyond: 2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 6166 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prospective Clinical Evaluation of Customized Titanium Occlusive Barriers with Window Modification for Guided Bone Regeneration: Radiographic and Histological Outcomes

by Luis Leiva-Gea, Alfonso Lendínez-Jurado, Paulino Sánchez-Palomino, Bendición Delgado-Ramos, María Daniela Corte-Torres, Cristina López-De La Torre, Isabel Leiva-Gea and Antonio Leiva-Gea

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020149 - 17 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 509

Abstract

This study aimed to quantify horizontal and vertical bone gain using superimposition of preoperative and postoperative cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) in severe alveolar ridge defects treated with a modified guided bone regeneration (GBR) technique based on customized titanium occlusive barriers with a [...] Read more.

This study aimed to quantify horizontal and vertical bone gain using superimposition of preoperative and postoperative cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) in severe alveolar ridge defects treated with a modified guided bone regeneration (GBR) technique based on customized titanium occlusive barriers with a window design, combined with autologous blood clot and β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP). In this prospective case series, 13 patients (28 defects) were treated. Customized titanium barriers were digitally designed based on CBCT data and manufactured by laser sintering. The barriers were fixed over the defects and filled with a mixture of an autologous blood clot and β-TCP, providing an osteoconductive scaffold within a stable regenerative compartment. A standardized window-based follow-up protocol was applied during healing, including irrigation and controlled deepithelialization. Primary outcomes were horizontal and vertical bone gain, assessed by pre- and postoperative CBCT superimposition. Histological evaluation was performed at the time of implant placement. After 8 months, significant bone gain was observed, with a mean horizontal gain of 4.50 ± 2.02 mm and a mean vertical gain of 4.40 ± 2.82 mm (p < 0.0001), confirmed by linear mixed-effects models and patient-level sensitivity analyses (p < 0.001). Histological analysis revealed well-vascularized newly formed bone with active osteoblasts and no inflammatory response. Keratinized gingiva formation was observed at all sites. One minor complication (mild screw loosening) was recorded and successfully resolved. This study is presented as a prospective case series; therefore, the results should be interpreted as exploratory evidence and do not allow direct comparisons or conclusions regarding equivalence or superiority over other GBR techniques. The present report specifically evaluates the regenerative phase prior to functional loading; therefore, although implants were placed according to protocol, implant survival and long-term functional outcomes were not assessed and cannot be inferred from these data. Within the limitations of this prospective case series, customized titanium occlusive barriers with a window design demonstrated promising results for horizontal and vertical bone augmentation and keratinized gingiva formation, without the need for autologous bone grafts or primary wound closure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomimetic Strategies to Enhance Bone Tissue Healing, Remodeling and Regeneration: 2nd Edition)

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64 pages, 12360 KB

Open AccessReview

Nacre and Nacre-Inspired Materials: Historical Background, Definition, Fabrication Techniques and Gaps

by Naim Sedira, João Castro-Gomes, Jorge Pinto, Pengkou Hou and Sandra Pereira

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020148 - 16 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1177

Abstract

From Palaeolithic ornaments to modern biomimetics, the use of nacre and shells has evolved. Initially utilised for jewellery and tools, they now inspire the development of advanced materials. This paper reviews the current knowledge on nacre’s composition, focusing on the highly regulated biomineralisation [...] Read more.

From Palaeolithic ornaments to modern biomimetics, the use of nacre and shells has evolved. Initially utilised for jewellery and tools, they now inspire the development of advanced materials. This paper reviews the current knowledge on nacre’s composition, focusing on the highly regulated biomineralisation process wherein amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) transforms into crystalline aragonite. It examines the important role of the organic matrix (specifically soluble, insoluble, and acidic proteins) in controlling crystal nucleation, growth, and polymorph selection. Scientists study natural nacre formation to create nacre-inspired composites for various applications. Charles Hatchett’s in 1799 shell categorisation, Sorby and Sowerby’s 19th-century microscopy, Taylor, Beedham, Bøggild, and Currey’s mid-20th-century research on bivalve structures, and mechanical property investigations in the 1970s are some of the major developments. The hierarchical structure, cooperative plastic deformation, surface asperities, organic–inorganic interactions, and interphase in such complex composite materials give rise to impressive mechanical properties. In the early 2000s, with the emergence of biomimetics, inspired by nacre, several macroscopic structural materials with uniform micro- and nanoscale architectures have been synthesised in recent decades, and their mechanical properties and potential applications have been explored. Modern nacre-inspired fabrication utilises 3D printing for precision, freeze casting for sustainability, and mineralisation for scalability. Techniques like layer-by-layer assembly and nanomaterial integration enhance mechanical performance through advanced interfacial engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biomimetics for Sustainable Civil Engineering: Materials, Structures, and Energy-Efficient Systems)

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20 pages, 4080 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bio-Compatibility Analysis of Newly Developed Plug and Cuff Electrodes for Future Neuronal Interface Applications

by Eleni Zingkou, Georgios Pampalakis, Asimina Kolianou, Nafsika Rossopoulou, Aikaterini Skiada, Lydia Galouni, Patryk Śniarowski, Longina Madej-Kiełbik, Georgia Sotiropoulou, Karolina Gzyra-Jagieła, Theodora Katsila, Carmen Moldovan, Marian Ion, Octavian Narcis Ionescu, Eduard Franti, David Dragomir, Gerd Siekmeyer and Patrick Grotemeyer

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020147 - 16 Feb 2026

Viewed by 546

Abstract

The NerveRepack project is a European initiative that aims to develop biomimetic exoskeletons/exoprostheses for amputated or paralyzed leg patients that will receive and transmit signals to enable movements and sensations for the patient. To implement the project, it is fundamental to develop implantable [...] Read more.

The NerveRepack project is a European initiative that aims to develop biomimetic exoskeletons/exoprostheses for amputated or paralyzed leg patients that will receive and transmit signals to enable movements and sensations for the patient. To implement the project, it is fundamental to develop implantable neuronal electrodes that will allow bidirectional signaling between the sensors placed on the exoskeletons/exoprostheses and the nervous system. In this direction, two electrodes, plug and cuff, have been designed as integral parts of the final implantable device. The electrodes should comply with strict regulations to ensure their safe implantation in patients. The purpose of this study was to support the compliance of the implant platforms of certain key components with the ISO and ASTM standards that would be required for clinical applications. We have used an indirect method to assess the biocompatibility of the developed electrodes against neuronal cells, fibroblasts, and keratinocytes. Also, we assessed hemocompatibility, i.e., the potential of implantable electrodes to induce hemolysis or complement activation. Finally, the mutagenic/genotoxic potential was tested against the internationally recommended CHO cells. Both representative plug and cuff electrode components were found non-cytotoxic, non-mutagenic, and unable to induce hemolysis. Therefore, from the point of early evaluation of in vitro material and process biocompatibility, the selected implant platforms for the electrodes could be implanted in preclinical models to delineate their potential in vivo applications as neuronal interface with the biomimetic exoskeleton/exoprostheses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bio-Integrated Neural Interfaces: Materials, Devices, and Translational Applications)

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15 pages, 1135 KB

Open AccessReview

Current Applications and Future Perspectives of Artificial Intelligence in Face-Driven Orthodontics: A Scoping Review

by Barbora Heribanová, Katarína Janáková, Juraj Tomášik, Daniela Tichá, Štefan Harsányi and Andrej Thurzo

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020146 - 16 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 843

Abstract

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has introduced transformative possibilities in orthodontics by enhancing diagnostic precision, treatment planning, and aesthetic outcomes. In face-driven orthodontics, treatment objectives extend beyond achieving proper occlusion to optimizing facial balance and harmony. With the growing patient demand for aesthetic improvements, AI [...] Read more.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has introduced transformative possibilities in orthodontics by enhancing diagnostic precision, treatment planning, and aesthetic outcomes. In face-driven orthodontics, treatment objectives extend beyond achieving proper occlusion to optimizing facial balance and harmony. With the growing patient demand for aesthetic improvements, AI technologies enable clinicians to integrate facial analysis and dynamic soft-tissue evaluation into personalized treatment approaches. Research in this scoping review analyzed current applications of AI in face-driven orthodontics, focusing on diagnosis, soft-tissue assessment, and individualized treatment planning. A comprehensive search was conducted in PubMed and Scopus for studies published between 2021 and 2025. The review followed the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Of 54 initially identified studies, 24 met the inclusion criteria after title, abstract, and full-text screening. Extracted data were organized according to the main application areas of AI in face-driven orthodontics. Most studies focused on AI-assisted facial analysis, 3D reconstruction, and treatment simulation. Deep learning models demonstrated high performance in soft-tissue prediction, aesthetic evaluation, and diagnostic accuracy. However, heterogeneity in datasets, a lack of standardized validation protocols, limited external validation across included studies and limited clinical applicability were identified as key limitations. AI-based facial analysis supports a shift toward individualized, aesthetics-oriented orthodontic planning. Although current evidence highlights its potential for improving diagnostic precision and treatment outcomes, further validation through large-scale clinical studies is essential for broader implementation in everyday practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dentistry and Craniofacial District: The Role of Biomimetics 2026)

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46 pages, 13370 KB

Open AccessReview

Patient-Specific Lattice Implants for Segmental Femoral and Tibial Reconstruction (Part 2): CT-Based Personalization, Design Workflows and Validation—A Review

by Mansoureh Rezapourian, Anooshe Sadat Mirhakimi, Tatevik Minasyan, Mahan Nematollahi and Irina Hussainova

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020145 - 13 Feb 2026

Viewed by 700

Abstract

Patient-specific lattice implants (PSLIs) and modular porous scaffolds have emerged as promising solutions for treating diaphyseal segmental defects of the femur and tibia, particularly where conventional reconstruction methods fall short. This second part of our two-part review focuses on how current studies transform [...] Read more.

Patient-specific lattice implants (PSLIs) and modular porous scaffolds have emerged as promising solutions for treating diaphyseal segmental defects of the femur and tibia, particularly where conventional reconstruction methods fall short. This second part of our two-part review focuses on how current studies transform computed tomography (CT) and

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CT datasets into architected lattice implants, as well as how these constructs are fabricated and numerically, mechanically, biologically, and clinically verified. We outline imaging pipelines, including Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) acquisition, segmentation, contralateral mirroring, and Hounsfield Units (HU)–density–elasticity mapping, and show how these choices impact finite element (FE) models and print-ready geometries. Next, lattice design strategies and mixed-material concepts are compared and linked to specific additive manufacturing routes in metals, polymers, and bioceramics, such as laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), electron beam melting (EBM), fused deposition modeling (FDM), material jetting, and extrusion-based bioprinting. Methodological overviews of linear–elastic models and homogenized finite element (FE) models, along with bench-top mechanical tests, in vitro cell assays, in vivo animal studies, and early clinical series, are utilized to categorize the studies into four pathways: simulation (S), mechanical (E_mech), biological (E_bio), and validation (V). Based on the reviewed literature, we establish a general workflow for CT implants. We identify common gaps in the process, observe insufficient reporting of imaging and modeling details, note a lack of data on fatigue and remodeling, and recognize the limited size of clinical cohorts. Additionally, we provide practical recommendations for developing more standardized and scalable planning pipelines. Part 1 of this two-part review studied defect patterns, anatomical location, and fixation strategies for patient-specific lattice implants used in femoral and tibial segmental reconstruction, with emphasis on how defect morphology and subregional anatomy influence construct selection and mechanical behavior. It established a defect- and fixation-centered review that provides the clinical and anatomical context for the workflow and validation analysis presented in Part 2. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomimetics of Materials and Structures)

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28 pages, 2478 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dual-Subpopulation Competitive Particle Swarm Optimization with Engineering Applications

by Shuying Zhang, Yufei Zhang, Minghan Gao, Qiaohong Zhang and Yue Gao

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020144 - 13 Feb 2026

Viewed by 485

Abstract

Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a widely used bio-inspired optimization algorithm, yet maintaining an effective balance between exploration and exploitation remains challenging. Most existing PSO variants rely on static or predefined regulation strategies, which restrict their adaptability to evolving search states and may [...] Read more.

Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a widely used bio-inspired optimization algorithm, yet maintaining an effective balance between exploration and exploitation remains challenging. Most existing PSO variants rely on static or predefined regulation strategies, which restrict their adaptability to evolving search states and may lead to premature convergence or search stagnation. Inspired by division of labor and competitive selection mechanisms in biological populations, this paper proposes a dual-subpopulation competitive particle swarm optimization (DCPSO). In DCPSO, the population is explicitly partitioned into exploration and exploitation subpopulations with distinct search roles. A dynamic competition mechanism is designed to evaluate recent search progress, based on which stagnated particles are adaptively migrated between subpopulations, enabling flexible reallocation of computational resources during the optimization process. Experimental results on the CEC2017 benchmark suite demonstrate that DCPSO consistently outperforms standard PSO and several representative state-of-the-art algorithms, achieving statistically significant improvements on the majority of benchmark functions, particularly on hybrid and composition problems. Additional experiments on engineering design problems further verify the robustness, convergence stability, and practical effectiveness of DCPSO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biological Optimisation and Management)

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39 pages, 5668 KB

Open AccessReview

On Bio-Inspired Strategies for Flow Control, Fluid–Structure Interaction, and Thermal Transport

by Farid Ahmed and Leonardo P. Chamorro

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020143 - 13 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 975

Abstract

Bio-inspired engineering draws on principles refined by natural evolution to tackle persistent challenges in fluid mechanics, structural dynamics, and thermal transport. This article presents a critical, mechanism-driven narrative review that integrates recent advances across three complementary domains that are often treated independently, namely: [...] Read more.

Bio-inspired engineering draws on principles refined by natural evolution to tackle persistent challenges in fluid mechanics, structural dynamics, and thermal transport. This article presents a critical, mechanism-driven narrative review that integrates recent advances across three complementary domains that are often treated independently, namely: flow-control strategies such as leading-edge tubercles, alula-like devices, riblets, superhydrophobic skins, and hybrid low-Reynolds-number fliers; fluid-structure interactions inspired by aquatic and aerial organisms that leverage compliant foils, flexible filaments, ciliary arrays, and piezoelectric fluttering plates for propulsion, wake regulation, mixing, and energy harvesting; and phase-change heat-transfer surfaces modeled after stomata, porous biological networks, and textured cuticles that enhance nucleation control, liquid replenishment, and droplet or bubble removal. Rather than providing an exhaustive catalog of biological analogues, this review emphasizes the underlying physical mechanisms that link these domains and enable multifunctional performance. These developments reveal shared physical principles, including multiscale geometry, capillary- and vortex-mediated transport, and compliance-enabled flow tuning, which motivate the integrated treatment of aerodynamic, hydrodynamic, and thermal systems in applications spanning aerospace, energy conversion, and microscale thermal management. The review assesses persistent challenges associated with scaling biological architectures, ensuring long-term durability, and modeling tightly coupled fluid-thermal-structural interactions. By synthesizing insights across flow control, fluid-structure interaction, and phase-change heat transfer, this review provides a unifying conceptual framework that distinguishes it from prior domain-specific reviews. Emerging opportunities in hybrid multi-mechanism designs, data-driven optimization, multiscale modeling, and advanced fabrication are identified as promising pathways to accelerate the translation of biological strategies into robust, multifunctional thermal–fluid systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomimetic Engineering for Fluid Manipulation and Flow Control)

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13 pages, 3132 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Microelectrode Array Interfaces for Organoids

by Dongha Kim and Hanjun Ryu

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020142 - 13 Feb 2026

Viewed by 822

Abstract

Electrophysiological studies using brain organoids provide valuable insights into neurological disorders and offer promising opportunities for therapeutic development. Accordingly, conventional two-dimensional microelectrode arrays (MEAs) are commonly employed to record neural activity with high spatiotemporal resolution. However, their measurements are mainly limited to the [...] Read more.

Electrophysiological studies using brain organoids provide valuable insights into neurological disorders and offer promising opportunities for therapeutic development. Accordingly, conventional two-dimensional microelectrode arrays (MEAs) are commonly employed to record neural activity with high spatiotemporal resolution. However, their measurements are mainly limited to the basal surface of the tissue. This limitation restricts the comprehensive analysis of the complex three-dimensional (3D) neural networks formed within organoids. To bridge this gap, this review summarizes recent advances in 3D MEA technologies, with a focus on device geometries, electrode designs, and neural signal acquisition strategies ranging from noninvasive to invasive approaches. Among these advances, photolithography-based fabrication processes have enabled submicron-scale structures, improving device flexibility, spatial resolution, and signal-to-noise ratio. Furthermore, the integration of 3D MEAs with perfusion systems and shape-transformable architectures facilitates stable, long-term electrophysiological monitoring of organoids. Finally, this review discusses emerging research trends and future perspectives in 3D MEA development in organoid-based neuroscience. Full article

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25 pages, 16758 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Modeling, and Experimental Verification of a Fully Decoupled Tendon-Driven Humanoid Arm

by Diwei Huang, Hao Li, Xiao Jiang, Jiahao Shen, Hong Luo, Chongkun Xia and Xueqian Wang

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020141 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 700

Abstract

Human upper-limb movement is produced through the antagonistic action of tendons and is controlled in a joint space-oriented manner. Inspired by this functionality, a fully decoupled tendon-driven humanoid arm (FDTDH-Arm) is proposed, in which joint space decoupling is achieved at the mechanical level [...] Read more.

Human upper-limb movement is produced through the antagonistic action of tendons and is controlled in a joint space-oriented manner. Inspired by this functionality, a fully decoupled tendon-driven humanoid arm (FDTDH-Arm) is proposed, in which joint space decoupling is achieved at the mechanical level via humanoid antagonistic actuation and joint regulation rather than complex modeling-based compensation. To characterize the motion behavior introduced by rolling constraints, joint-level and whole-arm kinematic models are established. A prototype of the proposed arm is developed and experimentally validated. The results demonstrate effective mechanical joint space decoupling, passive joint stiffness of the same order of magnitude as that reported for the human upper limb, a mean positioning error of 0.40 mm, and rapid whole-arm motion with a maximum end effector velocity of 3.62 m/s. The proposed design provides a mechanical implementation and biomimetic solution for humanoid manipulation in human-interactive environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Bioinspired Robot and Intelligent Systems)

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23 pages, 13071 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pneumatic–Cable-Hybrid-Driven Multi-Mechanism End Effector and Cross-Surface Validation

by Zhongyuan Wang, Zhiyuan Weng, Peiqing Zhang, Wei Jiang, Nan Deng and Zhouyi Wang

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020140 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 635

Abstract

Wall-climbing robots are increasingly required for applications in aerospace, high-altitude operations, and complex environmental monitoring, where they must maintain reliable adhesion and continuous mobility across surfaces with rapidly changing material properties and roughness. Achieving these demands requires lightweight systems with end effectors that [...] Read more.

Wall-climbing robots are increasingly required for applications in aerospace, high-altitude operations, and complex environmental monitoring, where they must maintain reliable adhesion and continuous mobility across surfaces with rapidly changing material properties and roughness. Achieving these demands requires lightweight systems with end effectors that integrate multi-surface adaptability and load-carrying capacity. Current single adhesion mechanisms are typically effective only under specific wall conditions, making it challenging to achieve stable, continuous adhesion and detachment on surfaces with significantly different roughness. To address this limitation, we propose a flexible, multi-mechanism coupled end effector driven by a pneumatic–cable hybrid system, integrating two complementary adhesion mechanisms—claw-based interlocking and vacuum suction—into a unified flexible structure. First, we develop the overall structural framework of the end effector and conduct finite element simulations to analyze key structural parameters of the telescopic cavity. We then establish a contact force model between the claw and vertical rough surfaces to clarify the interlocking adhesion mechanism and determine critical geometric parameters. Based on these analyses, a cable-driven adjustment mechanism is introduced to enable dynamic self-adaptation and assist with load-bearing during adhesion, enhancing the stability and load-carrying capacity under varying wall conditions. On rough surfaces, the end effector achieves reliable adhesion through claw interlocking, while on smooth surfaces, it maintains stable attachment through vacuum suction. Furthermore, it supports seamless switching between adhesion modes on different surfaces. When integrated into a wall-climbing robot, the system enables stable adhesion and detachment on both rough and smooth surfaces, providing a feasible solution for the lightweight, integrated design of end effectors for multi-surface adaptive wall-climbing robots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomimetic Surfaces and Interfaces)

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15 pages, 24087 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Regularization on Efficient Modeling and Simulation of Bioinspired Composites Using Cohesive Zone Method

by Md Jalal Uddin Rumi and Xiaowei Zeng

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020139 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 447

Abstract

Tessellation-based polyhedral microstructures derived from Voronoi and Laguerre constructions provide a realistic geometric foundation for modeling bioinspired organic–inorganic composites with interfacial fracture. However, even after extensive centroidal relaxation, such tessellations retain numerous lower-dimensional geometric degeneracies—very short edges and small or sliver-like faces—that severely [...] Read more.

Tessellation-based polyhedral microstructures derived from Voronoi and Laguerre constructions provide a realistic geometric foundation for modeling bioinspired organic–inorganic composites with interfacial fracture. However, even after extensive centroidal relaxation, such tessellations retain numerous lower-dimensional geometric degeneracies—very short edges and small or sliver-like faces—that severely hinder volumetric meshing and render large-scale cohesive-zone simulations computationally impractical. In this work, we employ a geometric regularization step that enforces a minimum admissible feature length prior to meshing and systematically quantify its impact on downstream performance in finite element discretization and cohesive fracture simulation. By eliminating geometric features below the prescribed length scale while preserving grain topology and morphology, the regularized tessellations exhibit sharply improved edge-length and face-diameter distributions and become readily meshable at practical resolutions. When applied to a 3D bioinspired organic–inorganic composite with cohesive interfaces, the regularized geometry reduces volumetric and cohesive element counts nearly fivefold and increases the explicit stable time increment by approximately four orders of magnitude, transforming an otherwise diverging analysis into a robust simulation that converges to the prescribed deformation. These results demonstrate that the prescribed geometric regularization step is not merely a preprocessing refinement but a critical enabling step for efficient and large-scale cohesive fracture simulations of tessellation-based bioinspired composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomimicry and Functional Materials: 5th Edition)

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42 pages, 7293 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Enhanced A*-DWA Fusion Algorithm for Robot Navigation in Complex Environments

by Huifang Bao, Jie Fang, Mingxing Fang, Jinsi Zhang, Zhuo Zhang and Haoyu Cai

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020138 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 633

Abstract

To tackle the navigation challenge in dynamic and complex environments, this study designs a fusion planning framework that synergistically integrates enhanced A* algorithm with improved DWA, inspired by the biological dual-layer navigation mechanism of global path planning and local real-time obstacle avoidance. Firstly, [...] Read more.

To tackle the navigation challenge in dynamic and complex environments, this study designs a fusion planning framework that synergistically integrates enhanced A* algorithm with improved DWA, inspired by the biological dual-layer navigation mechanism of global path planning and local real-time obstacle avoidance. Firstly, the original global path from the conventional A* algorithm is smoothed and length-reduced through a three-stage optimization strategy involving redundant node removal and forward and reverse path relaxation, mimicking the behavioral logic of honeybees and desert ants that eliminate redundant routes to complete foraging and homing with minimal energy consumption. Secondly, an evaluation function integrating dynamic obstacle perception and adaptive weight adjustment is designed for the DWA to enhance the intelligence of local planning, drawing on the adaptive strategy of animals such as antelopes that adjust behavioral priorities according to environmental complexity to balance safety and efficiency. To comprehensively verify the performance of the proposed algorithm, simulation evaluations are performed in various scenarios, including 20 × 20 and 30 × 30 grid maps, with single and dual dynamic obstacles. Results demonstrate that our algorithm outperforms conventional methods in path length, smoothness, and safety. Further physical verification is carried out on a LiDAR-equipped mobile robot (Shenzhen Yuanchuangxing Technology Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China) based on the ROS platform, confirming that the algorithm can stably achieve static path tracking and real-time obstacle avoidance in real indoor environments. Consequently, the developed hybrid algorithm delivers a viable and robust solution for autonomous mobile robots to navigate safely and efficiently in unpredictable and complex environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bioinspired Sensorics, Information Processing and Control)

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40 pages, 18232 KB

Open AccessArticle

MSO: A Modified Snake Optimizer for Engineering Applications

by Hongxi Wang and Likun Hu

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020137 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 437

Abstract

Many complex engineering problems can be formulated as mathematical optimization tasks, for which bio-inspired metaheuristic algorithms have demonstrated outstanding effectiveness. Drawing inspiration from snake behavior, the Snake Optimizer (SO) algorithm provides a promising framework but suffers from random population initialization, insufficient global search [...] Read more.

Many complex engineering problems can be formulated as mathematical optimization tasks, for which bio-inspired metaheuristic algorithms have demonstrated outstanding effectiveness. Drawing inspiration from snake behavior, the Snake Optimizer (SO) algorithm provides a promising framework but suffers from random population initialization, insufficient global search capability, and slow convergence. To address these drawbacks, the study proposes a Modified Snake Optimizer (MSO) that integrates three key strategies: a dual mapping strategy based on Latin hypercube sampling and logistic mapping for population initialization; an opposition-based learning mechanism with scaling factors for exploration; and integration of the soft-rime search strategy from RIME optimization during exploitation. The performance of MSO was benchmarked against nine representative algorithms using the CEC2017 and further validated on three engineering application problems—pressure vessel, tension/compression spring, and hydrostatic thrust bearing design, and two UAV path planning scenarios. Experimental results show that MSO achieves faster convergence speed, stronger robustness and greater stability, effectively extending the biomimetic principles of the original SO and confirming its superiority for solving optimization problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biological Optimisation and Management)

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24 pages, 7557 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Personalized Gait Parameter Prediction-Based Speed-Adaptive Control Method for Hybrid Active-Passive Intelligent Prosthetic Knee

by Xiaoming Wang, Yuanhua Li, Hui Li, Shengli Luo and Hongliu Yu

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020136 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 408

Abstract

To address the limitations of current prosthetic knees that lack personalized adaptability to users’ gait characteristics and walking speeds, this study proposes a personalized gait parameter prediction–based speed-adaptive control method for a hybrid active–passive intelligent prosthetic knee (HAPK). The proposed system integrates a [...] Read more.

To address the limitations of current prosthetic knees that lack personalized adaptability to users’ gait characteristics and walking speeds, this study proposes a personalized gait parameter prediction–based speed-adaptive control method for a hybrid active–passive intelligent prosthetic knee (HAPK). The proposed system integrates a perceptron-based model to predict individualized gait parameters by mapping anthropometric data and walking speed to key points of the knee trajectory. A fuzzy logic–based damping control for the swing phase and a position–torque control for the stance extension phase are developed to achieve real-time adaptation to different walking speeds and user-specific biomechanics. The hybrid actuation system combines hydraulic damping and motor torque assistance to ensure both compliance and power delivery across gait phases. Experimental results from variable-speed walking tests demonstrate that the proposed control method improves gait symmetry indices—reducing stance and swing asymmetries by approximately 30–38%—and achieves smoother, more natural gait transitions compared to traditional fixed-gait control strategies. These findings validate the effectiveness of the proposed approach in achieving continuous, personalized, and speed-consistent gait control for intelligent prosthetic knees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomimetics of Materials and Structures)

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19 pages, 13637 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Bio-Inspired Comprehensive Learning Strategy-Enhanced Parrot Optimizer: Performance Evaluation and Application to Reservoir Production Optimization

by Boyang Yu and Yizhong Zhang

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020135 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 455

Abstract

The efficacy of swarm intelligence algorithms in navigating high-dimensional, non-convex landscapes depends on the dynamic balance between global exploration and local exploitation. Drawing inspiration from the intricate social dynamics of Pyrrhura molinae, this study proposes a novel bio-inspired metaheuristic, the Comprehensive Learning [...] Read more.

The efficacy of swarm intelligence algorithms in navigating high-dimensional, non-convex landscapes depends on the dynamic balance between global exploration and local exploitation. Drawing inspiration from the intricate social dynamics of Pyrrhura molinae, this study proposes a novel bio-inspired metaheuristic, the Comprehensive Learning Parrot Optimizer (CL-PO). While the original Parrot Optimizer (PO) simulates collective foraging and communication, it often suffers from population homogenization and entrapment in local optima due to its reliance on single-source social learning. To address these limitations, CL-PO incorporates a dimension-wise multi-exemplar social learning mechanism analogous to the cross-individual knowledge transfer observed in avian colonies. This strategy enables stagnant individuals to reconstruct their search trajectories by learning from multiple superior peers, thereby sustaining population diversity and facilitating adaptive exploration. Rigorous benchmarking on 29 test functions from the CEC 2017 suite reveals that CL-PO achieves statistically superior performance compared to nine state-of-the-art algorithms, securing a top-tier average Friedman rank of 1.28. Furthermore, the practical utility of CL-PO is substantiated through a complex reservoir production optimization task using the Egg benchmark model, where it consistently maximizes the net present value (NPV), reaching

9.625 \times 10^{8}

USD. These findings demonstrate that CL-PO is a powerful and reliable solver for addressing large-scale engineering optimization problems under complex constraints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Inspired Intelligent Computation for Optimisation in Business and Engineering Applications)

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12 pages, 3029 KB

Open AccessArticle

Silk Proteins as Biomaterial Additives for DMSO-Reduced Cryopreservation

by Mauro Pollini, Carmen Lanzillotti and Federica Paladini

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020134 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 470

Abstract

Background: Cryopreservation is a key enabling technology for cell-based therapies and regenerative medicine; however, the toxicity associated with permeating cryoprotective agents such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) remains a major limitation, particularly for applications requiring repeated cell administration or long-term storage. Methods: [...] Read more.

Background: Cryopreservation is a key enabling technology for cell-based therapies and regenerative medicine; however, the toxicity associated with permeating cryoprotective agents such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) remains a major limitation, particularly for applications requiring repeated cell administration or long-term storage. Methods: In this study, silk-derived proteins, namely silk fibroin and silk sericin, were investigated as biomaterial-based cryoprotective additives to enable DMSO-sparing cryopreservation strategies. Mouse fibroblasts (3T3) were cryopreserved at −80 °C using conventional DMSO-based media, silk-only formulations, and hybrid formulations combining silk proteins with reduced DMSO concentrations. Post-thaw cell adhesion, metabolic activity, membrane integrity, and cytoskeletal organization were systematically evaluated over a 7-day culture period. Results: Complete replacement of DMSO with silk proteins was insufficient to ensure cell survival, confirming the essential role of permeating cryoprotectants for intracellular protection. In contrast, formulations combining silk fibroin or sericin with 5% (v/v) DMSO supported robust post-thaw viability, preserved cytoskeletal architecture, and promoted favorable recovery kinetics, with cell viability consistently exceeding established biocompatibility thresholds and higher than samples with DMSO alone. Conclusions: These findings support the integration of biomaterial-based components into hybrid cryopreservation formulations and provide design principles relevant to the preservation of more complex multicellular systems. Full article

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16 pages, 4584 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on a Hexapod Hybrid Robot with Wheel-Legged Locomotion and Bio-Inspired Jumping for Lunar Extreme-Terrain Exploration

by Liangliang Han, Enbo Li, Song Jiang, Kun Xu, Xiaotao Wang, Xilun Ding and Chongfeng Zhang

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020133 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 633

Abstract

Exploring the lunar complex and extreme terrain presents formidable challenges for conventional lunar rovers. To address these limitations, this study proposes a novel hexapod jumping hybrid robot that incorporates a “figure-of-eight” (butterfly-shaped) six-branched wheel-legged mechanism and a jumping system that stores elastic energy [...] Read more.

Exploring the lunar complex and extreme terrain presents formidable challenges for conventional lunar rovers. To address these limitations, this study proposes a novel hexapod jumping hybrid robot that incorporates a “figure-of-eight” (butterfly-shaped) six-branched wheel-legged mechanism and a jumping system that stores elastic energy via deformation of its elastic body. Inspired by the multimodal locomotion of grasshoppers, the robot dynamically switches between two operational modes: high-efficiency wheeled locomotion on relatively flat surfaces and agile jumping to traverse steep slopes and surmount large obstacles. A bio-inspired gait, inspired by the crawling patterns of a hexapod insect, is implemented using a Central Pattern Generator (CPG)-based controller to produce coordinated, rhythmic limb movements. Dynamic simulations of the jumping mechanism were conducted to optimize the critical parameters of the elastic structure and its associated control strategy. Experiments on a physical prototype were conducted to validate the robot’s wheeled mobility and jumping performance. The results demonstrate that the robot exhibits excellent adaptability to rugged terrains and obstacle-dense environments. The integration of multimodal locomotion and adaptive gait control significantly enhances the robot’s operational robustness and survivability in the harsh lunar environment, opening new possibilities for future lunar exploration missions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomimetic Robot Motion Control)

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24 pages, 7472 KB

Open AccessArticle

Walking on Uneven Terrain with Hexapod Robots Having Underactuated Legs and Articulated Body

by Ioan Doroftei

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020132 - 11 Feb 2026

Viewed by 723

Abstract

Hexapod walking robots are a subject of intense research in the existing literature. To move effectively in natural terrain, these robots must be able to adapt to surface irregularities. While most existing designs employ sophisticated technical solutions for the leg mechanisms, none of [...] Read more.

Hexapod walking robots are a subject of intense research in the existing literature. To move effectively in natural terrain, these robots must be able to adapt to surface irregularities. While most existing designs employ sophisticated technical solutions for the leg mechanisms, none of these projects allow for combined roll and pitch movements of the body segments. This paper addresses this gap, presenting the concept of a hexapod robot with a body formed of three segments connected by two active universal joints. This unique architecture allows the robot to locomote on both sides and autonomously recover from a rollover event. The robot’s legs are underactuated, utilizing a passive spring element to simplify the mechanical design and control system while maintaining effective terrain adaptation capabilities. Experimental results are presented and discussed, validating the theoretical model and demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed solution on varied terrains. Full article

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23 pages, 16524 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Energy-Efficient Gas–Oil Hybrid Servo Actuator with Single-Chamber Pressure Control for Biomimetic Quadruped Knee Joints

by Mingzhu Yao, Zisen Hua and Huimin Qian

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020131 - 11 Feb 2026

Viewed by 405

Abstract

Legged robots inspired by animal locomotion require actuators with high power density, fast response, and robust force control, yet traditional valve-controlled hydraulic systems suffer from substantial energy losses and weak regeneration performance. Motivated by role allocation across gait phases in animal legs, where [...] Read more.

Legged robots inspired by animal locomotion require actuators with high power density, fast response, and robust force control, yet traditional valve-controlled hydraulic systems suffer from substantial energy losses and weak regeneration performance. Motivated by role allocation across gait phases in animal legs, where in-air positioning requires far less actuation effort than ground contact support and force modulation, this work proposes a novel gas–oil hybrid servo actuator, denoted GOhsa, for quadruped knee joints. GOhsa utilizes pre-charged high-pressure gas to pressurize hydraulic oil, converting the conventional dual-chamber pressure servo control into a single-chamber configuration while preserving the original piston stroke. This architecture enables bidirectional position–force control, enhances energy regeneration applicability, and improves operational efficiency. Theoretical modeling is conducted to analyze hydraulic stiffness and frequency-response characteristics, and a linearization-based force controller with dynamic compensation is developed to handle system nonlinearities. Experimental validation on a single-leg platform demonstrates significant energy-saving performance: under no-load conditions (simulating the swing phase), GOhsa achieves a maximum power reduction of 79.1%, with average reductions of 15.2% and 11.5% at inflation pressures of 3 MPa and 4 MPa, respectively. Under loaded conditions (simulating the stance phase), the maximum reduction reaches 28.0%, with average savings of 10.0% and 9.8%. Tracking accuracy is comparable to traditional actuators, with reduced maximum errors (13.7 mm/16.5 mm at 3 MPa; 15.0 mm/17.8 mm at 4 MPa) relative to the 16.6 mm and 18.1 mm errors of the conventional system, confirming improved motion stability under load. These results verify that GOhsa provides high control performance with markedly enhanced energy efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Locomotion and Bioinspired Robotics)

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19 pages, 14777 KB

Open AccessArticle

Human-Inspired Holistic Control for Mobile Humanoid Robots

by Zijian Wang, Xuanrui Ren, Hongfu Tang, Hongzhe Jin and Jie Zhao

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020130 - 11 Feb 2026

Viewed by 575

Abstract

Humanoid mobile manipulators integrate a humanoid upper body with a mobile platform, forming a highly redundant system capable of performing complex manipulation tasks. To address the redundancy arising from the coordinated motion of the wheeled base, waist, and dual arms, this study proposes [...] Read more.

Humanoid mobile manipulators integrate a humanoid upper body with a mobile platform, forming a highly redundant system capable of performing complex manipulation tasks. To address the redundancy arising from the coordinated motion of the wheeled base, waist, and dual arms, this study proposes a human-inspired holistic control method based on multi-objective optimization. The degrees of freedom (DOF) of the upper limbs and the mobile base are unified within a single control framework, thereby enhancing overall motion coordination. Specifically, the controller is formulated as a strictly convex quadratic program (QP) that ensures accurate end-effector tracking while effectively handling joint position and velocity constraints. Inspired by human motor characteristics, the method incorporates a hierarchical weight assignment strategy and base DOF optimization to preserve arm manipulability while achieving effective coordination between the base and waist. Simulation studies of dual-arm handling tasks and real-world experiments involving mobile handling and peg-in-hole assembly demonstrate that the proposed method generates smooth, humanoid-like motions, thereby validating the effectiveness of the proposed control framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Inspired Robots: Design and Application)

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18 pages, 3476 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Optimization Method for an Active Multi-Unit Prosthetic Socket with Dynamic Adaptability in Multi-Task Scenarios

by Yawen Hu, Li Jiang, Chunying Zou, Bangchu Yang, Tianquan Han and Ming Cheng

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020129 - 11 Feb 2026

Viewed by 515

Abstract

As a core functional component of the prosthetic system, the prosthetic socket’s adaptability to the residual limb is directly correlated with the prosthetic’s performance, comfort level, and safety profile. Although traditional sockets can satisfy basic suspension requirements, they commonly suffer from inherent drawbacks [...] Read more.

As a core functional component of the prosthetic system, the prosthetic socket’s adaptability to the residual limb is directly correlated with the prosthetic’s performance, comfort level, and safety profile. Although traditional sockets can satisfy basic suspension requirements, they commonly suffer from inherent drawbacks in practical applications, including uneven pressure distribution, poor air permeability, and inadequate adaptability to the morphological variations of individual residual limbs. To enhance socket adaptability across multi-task scenarios, this study proposes an intelligent physiological adaptation-based optimal design method for active upper-limb prosthetic sockets. Specifically, this method first employs a dynamic force optimization algorithm for multi-contact units oriented to prosthetic manipulation tasks, which real-timely optimizes the output force of each unit under varying external loads to achieve stable socket suspension with minimal interface pressure. Second, biomechanical experiments are conducted to obtain the pain threshold distribution characteristics of forearm soft tissues under compressive loads, thereby providing a physiological basis for the spatial layout of the contact units. Furthermore, the mechanical performance of different socket structures is evaluated under various representative task scenarios, with peak normal force, mean normal force, and force distribution variance adopted as the key comfort evaluation indices. The results demonstrate that the proposed active multi-unit socket, particularly the double-layered eight-unit symmetric radial staggered configuration, enables a robust balance between comfort and stability across diverse task scenarios, thereby establishing an effective and scalable design paradigm for long-term adaptive upper-limb prosthetic sockets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Inspired Grasp Control in Robotics 2025)

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34 pages, 5232 KB

Open AccessReview

Patient-Specific Lattice Implants for Segmental Femoral and Tibial Reconstruction (Part 1): Defect Patterns, Fixation Strategies and Reconstruction Options—A Review

by Mansoureh Rezapourian, Anooshe Sadat Mirhakimi, Mahan Nematollahi, Tatevik Minasyan and Irina Hussainova

Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020128 - 10 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 755

Abstract

This first part of a two-part review examines how Computed Tomography(CT)-based, additively manufactured (AM) porous implants are used to reconstruct large segmental defects of the femur and tibia. We focus on lightweight patient-specific lattice implants, architected cages, and modular porous constructs that incorporate [...] Read more.

This first part of a two-part review examines how Computed Tomography(CT)-based, additively manufactured (AM) porous implants are used to reconstruct large segmental defects of the femur and tibia. We focus on lightweight patient-specific lattice implants, architected cages, and modular porous constructs that incorporate engineered porosity into the load-bearing structure and are deployed with plate-, nail-, or external-fixator-based stabilization. We show how defects are described and classified by size, morphology, and anatomical subsegment; how these descriptors influence fixation choice and the resulting mechanical environment; and where along the femur and tibia porous implants have been applied in clinical and preclinical settings. Across the literature, outcomes appear to depend most strongly on defect morphology and local biology, while fixation feasibility and construct behavior vary by subregional anatomy. Most reported constructs use Ti6Al4V porous architectures intended to share load with fixation, reduce stress shielding, and provide a regenerative space for graft and tissue ingrowth. Finite element analyses (FEA) and bench-top studies consistently indicate that lattice architecture, relative density (RD), and fixation concept jointly control stiffness, micromotion, and fatigue-sensitive regions, whereas early animal and human reports describe promising incorporation and functional recovery in selected cases. However, defect descriptors, fixation reporting, boundary conditions, and outcome metrics remain diverse, and explicit quantitative validation of simulations against mechanical or in vivo measurements is uncommon. Most published work relies on simulation and bench testing, with limited reporting of biological endpoints, leaving a validation gap that prevents direct translation. We emphasize the need for standardized defect and fixation descriptors, harmonized mechanical and modeling protocols, and defect-centered datasets that integrate anatomy, mechanics, and longitudinal outcomes. Across the 27 included studies (may be counted in more than one group), simulation and mechanical testing are reported in 19/27 (70%) and 15/27 (56%), respectively, while in vivo studies (preclinical or clinical) account for 9/27 (33%), highlighting a validation gap that limits translation. Part 2 (under review); of these two series review paper; Patient-Specific Lattice Implants for Segmental Femoral and Tibial Reconstruction (Part 2): CT-Based Personalization, Design Workflows, and Validation-A Review; extends this work by detailing CT-to-implant workflows, lattice design strategies, and methodological validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomimetics of Materials and Structures)

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